Commercialization of Agriculture Essay

Introduction The British rule had pronounced and profound economic impact on India. The various economic policies followed by the British led to the rapid transformation of India’s economy into a colonial economy whose nature and structure were determined by needs of the British economy. One important aspect of British economic policy was commercialization of agriculture. Commercialization of agriculture which can be defined as a process where peasants start producing primarily for sale in distant markets, rather than to meet their own need for food or to sell in local markets, (Roy, 2007) has taken place at different times in response to different stimuli. In the Indian context though a number of commercial crops such as cotton, tobacco and sugarcane were grown fairly extensively even before the advent of British rule (Habib, 1982), since land revenue had to be paid mostly in cash and the prices of these crops were much higher at that time relative to the prices of foodgrains, however, commercialization of agriculture at that time corresponded only to the requirements of traditional â€â€"revenue economy‘ in which the main form of revenue payable happened to be an indistinguishable mix of tax, tribute and rent (Raj, 1985). No doubt the need to pay revenue in cash was the initial compelling force for the marketing of agricultural produce, the large surpluses so extracted from agriculture, without a flow of goods and services in the reverse direction in exchange, was basically an impediment to further commercialization (Raj, 1985). Thus, commercialization of agriculture in pre-British period existed only in its embryonic form. In true sense, therefore, agriculture of India got a commercial orientation during the British rule. Industrialization in Europe and Commercialization of Agriculture in India The commercialization of Indian Agriculture took place not to feed the industries of India because India was far behind in industrial development as compared to Britain, France, Belgium and many other European countries of eighteenth century. The commercialization of Indian Agriculture was done primarily to feed the British industries that it was taken up and achieved only in cases-of those agricultural products which were either needed by the  British industries or could fetch cash commercial gain to the British in the European or American market. For example, several efforts were made to increase the production of cotton in India to provide raw and good quality cotton to the cotton-textile industries of Britain which were growing fast after the Industrial Revolution in Britain. Therefore, cotton growing area increase in India and its production increased manifold with gradual lapse of time. Indigo and more than that, tea and coffee plantation were encouraged in India because these could get commercial market abroad. It was beneficial to the British planters, traders and manufacturers, who were provided with opportunity to make huge profits by getting the commercialized agricultural products at, throw away prices. The commercialization of Indian agriculture also partly benefited Indian traders and money lenders who made huge fortunes by working as middlemen for the British. This regard they acted as conduits delivering the products from peasants to the British company from where it was taken abroad. Though markets and trade in agricultural goods existed in quite organized forms and on a large scale in the pre-British period but the market expansion in the British period marked a qualitative and quantitative break. According to Tirthankar Roy, there were three main qualitative changes. â€â€"First, before the British rule, product markets were constrained and subject to imperfections, given multiplicity of weights and measures, backward and risky transportation systems, and extensive use of barter. British rule and the railways weakened these constraints. By doing so, it enabled closer integration of global, regional and local markets. Second, from the time of industrial revolution, a new international specialization began to emerge as a result of trade. India specialized, in agricultural exports. Third, in turn, changes in the product market induced changes in land, labor, and credit markets‘ (Roy, 2007). The American Civil War also indirectly encouraged commercialization of agriculture in India: the British cotton demand was diverted to India. The demand of cotton was maintained even after the civil war ceased because of the rise of cotton textile industries in India. The commercialization of India agriculture was initiated in India by the British through their direct and indirect policies and activities. Firstly, the new land tenure system introduced in form of permanent settlement and Ryotwari Settlement had made agricultural land a freely exchangeable commodity. The Permanent settlement by giving ownership right to the zamindars created a class of wealthy landlords; they could make use of this ownership right by sale or purchase of land. Secondly, the agriculture which had been way of life rather than a business enterprise now began to be practiced for sale in national and international market. Thirdly, the political unity established by the British and the resulted in rise of the unified national market. Fourthly, the spread of money economy replaced the barter and agricultural goods became market items and the replacement of custom and tradition by competition and contract. Finally, the British policy of one way free trade also acted as sufficient encouraging factor for commercialization as the manufactured items in textile, jute etc. could find free entry in Indian markets, where as the manufactured goods did not have similar free access to European markets. Impact of Commercialization on Indian Agriculture It is interesting to note that though there is little controversy with regard to the role of British in initiating and promoting the forces which led to the commercialization of Indian agriculture, however, the nature of commercialization and its impact on the Indian peasantry had been very controversial issue, both during and after the British rule. To the nationalists, it was not out of the free will of the cultivators– commercialization of agriculture was forced and artificial (Dutt, 1906). This was so because the high pitch of revenue demand in cash compelled the cultivators to sell large portion of the produce of their fields keeping an insufficient stock for their own consumption. On the other hand the colonial bureaucracy argued that it was the market force rather than the pressure of land revenue that was drawing the farmers into the business of production for the market. The commercial crops were more profitable and this economic incentive led them to produce for sale and export, thus making it possible for them to increase per capita income. Furthermore, the imperialist historiography and the colonial bureaucracy viewed commercialization of  agriculture, the expansion of trade in agricultural products and the rising agricultural prices as an indication of the â€â€"growing prosperity of the peasantry.‘ (Satyanarayana, 2005). On the other hand anti-imperialist historiography (both nationalist and radical Marxist) emphasizing the negative impact of commercialization of agriculture and the integration implied that agricultural production in India was to be determined by imperial preferences and needs (Bhatia, 1967). Moreover, other historians following the neo-classical economic theory or with anti-imperialistic orientations (Marxists and non Marxists) have extended their support to either of the two. The commercialization of agriculture was a forced and artificial process for the majority of Indian peasants. It was introduced under coercion of the British and not out of the incentive of peasantry at large. The peasantry went for cultivation of commercial crops under duress. Most importantly the life of the Indian peasant was tied to the highly fluctuating national and international market. He was no longer a deciding factor in agricultural practices. Further, by making agricultural land a tradable commodity, the peasant lost his security feeling. High land revenue demand forced him to take loan from the money lender at high interest rates. Failure to pay debt in time meant loss of land to the money lender at high interest rates. It led to land alienation and increase in the number of agricultural laborers whose conditions especially in plantation industry was pathetic. He had to pay the land revenue due to the British government in time. Moreover, he had to grow commercial crop on a specified tract of his land under the oppression of planters. Also, Indian money lenders advanced Cash advances to the farmers to cultivate the commercial crops and if the peasants failed to pay him back in time, the land of peasants came under ownership of moneylenders. The poor peasant was forced to sell his produce just after harvest at whatever prices he could get. This placed him at the money of the grain merchant, who was in a position to dictate terms and who purchased his produced at much less than the market price. It also resulted in reduced area under cultivation of food crops. The net result of this change was that Indian failed to produce even that much food  crops which could provide even two square meals a day to its population. The misery was further enhanced became the population of India was increasing every year, fragmentation of land was taking place because of the increasing pressure on land and modern techniques of agricultural production were not introduced in India. While the upper class and British industries benefited-from it, the Indian peasants’ life was tied to remote international market. It affected adversely the poor people of India; it became difficult for them to get even sufficient food. This becomes ample from the fact that ill 1880 India had a surplus of foodstuffs to the extent of five million tons and by 1945 it had a deficit of 10 million tons. George Byn records that from 1893-94 to 1945-46, the production of commercial crops increased by 85 percent and that of food crops fell by 7 percent. This had a devastating effect on the rural economy and often took the shape of famines. Bhatia believes that the earlier famines were localized, and it was only after 1860, during the British rule, that famine came to signify general shortage of foodgrains in the country. There were approximately 25 major famines spread through states such as Tamil Nadu in the south, and Bihar and Bengal in the east during the latter half of the 19th century. Great Depression and Indian Agriculture A global economic depression broke out in 1929. However, the causes were more diverse and multi-pronged, with the decrease in costs and economic deflation of the post-war period being one of the main reasons. This deflation was caused by excessive manufacturing activities during the First World War. As a result, huge stocks of goods were piled up without being used. Wartime expenditure had reduced the countries of Europe to a state of heavy debt (Manikumra, 2003). With the outbreak of the Second World War, India was required to provide the resources for financing the war expenditures, which amounted to nearly 38 billion rupees from 194146. Government attached excessive importance in maintaining war related production, as a result of which a comprehensive system of supplying food to the urban areas at controlled prices was put in place. The rural poor were not viewed as being essential to the war effort and so the main burden of war financing was  passed on to them. With the Great Depression, agricultural prices worldwide started falling earlier than industrial prices. As a result, the manufacturing-agriculture terms of trade turned sharply against agriculture. A substantial redistribution took place from the mass of rural producers to urban classes. Thus the combination of the long term trend of decline in per head production of foodgrains, a rise in per head production of exportable and the effects of deteriorating terms of trade created a set of pre-famine conditions in the sense that any substantial shock to the economic system under these circumstances was almost certain to precipitate famine in the absence of countervailing intervention. Taxes were jacked up and deficit financing by printing money was resorted to and money supply is estimated to have raised five folds in the four years from 1940.As a result there was a war boom and profit inflation. Rice price started an upward spiral from the last quarter of 1941, doubled within a year a nd quadrupled within eighteen months. Also, the colonial government from the beginning strongly pushed exportable production by forcible cultivation of poppy in the early 19th century and export of opium to China, culminating in the infamous opium wars and indigo mutiny. With time overt force became less necessary as the pressure of revenue demand transmitted down to the peasant cultivators as the pressure of rental demand and in the case of landlords paying the revenue; compelled peasants to grow more commercial crops to sell and to commercialize food production itself. Famine: Indian Agriculture strained by commercialization and Great Depression The fall in prices had been higher in India compared to the rest of the world, the price of commodities manufactured in India rose dramatically compared to imports from the United  Kingdom or some other country in the world. The Great Depression had a terrible impact on the Indian farmer. While there was a steady, uninhibited increase in land rent, the value of the agricultural produce had come down  to alarming levels. Therefore, having incurred heavy losses, the farmer was compelled to sell off gold and silver ornaments in his possession in order to pay the land rent and other taxes. Farmers who were cultivating food crops had earlier moved over to cash crop cultivation in large numbers to meet the demands of the mills in the United Kingdom. Now, they were crippled as they were unable to sell their products in India due to the high prices; nor could they export the commodities to the United Kingdom which had recently adopted a protective policy prohibiting imports from India. An ex ante excess of investment over savings was converted to equality through forced savings extracted via food price inflation from the rural population. The consumption of food was then estimated at one and a half pound per individual and in 1945 it was 1 pound. Nearly thirty percent of the Indian population was estimated to be suffering from chronic malnutrition and under nutrition. Thus, the commercialization of agriculture in India by the British was also one of the important causes of the impoverishment of the Indian people. This resulted in a combination of famines and epidemics claiming around 2.7 to 3.1 million lives. The most cited example is that of ―Bengal Faminesâ€â€". Romesh Chunder Dutt argued as early as 1900, and present-day scholars such as Amartya Sen agree, that some historic famines were a product of both uneven rainfall and British economic and administrative policies, which since 1857 had led to the seizure and conversion of local farmland to foreign-owned plantations, restrictions on internal trade, heavy taxation of Indian citizens to support British. The Great Famine of 1876–78, in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died and the Indian famine of 1899–1900, in which 1.25 to 10 million people died were the most destructive famines. The Bengal Famine resulted in approximately 3 million  deaths. Generally the estimates are between 1.5 and 4 million, considering death due to starvation, malnutrition and disease, out of Bengal’s 60.3 million populations. Half of the victims would have died from disease after food became available in December 1943. Generally it is thought that there was serious decrease in food production during that time which is coupled with continuing export of grain. However according to Amartya Sen, there was no significant decrease in food production in 1943 (in fact food production  was higher compared to 1941). The highest mortality was not in previously very poor groups, but among artisans and small traders whose income vanished when people spent all they had on food and did not employ cobblers, carpenters, etc. The famine also caused major economic and social disruption, ruining millions of families. Conclusion Since colonial times, opinions would seem to have been divided between â€â€"optimists‘, for whom commercialization marked progress and a growing prosperity for all; â€â€"pessimists‘, for whom it marked regress into deepening class stratification and mass pauperization; and â€â€"skeptics‘ who held that it made very little difference and that its impact was largely absorbed by pre-existing structures of wealth accumulation and power on the land. However, capitalization in the 21 st century is said to create similar impact as colonial times, the only difference being that the later one was forced through oppressive policies, whereas the former would be market driven. The farmer in his choice of crops attached greater importance to market demand and price than o other factors. Capitalism has mixed impacts on Indian agriculture. While it brings about liberalization and globalization that leads to trans-border availability of agricultural products all over the world, it breaks the economic self-sufficiency in India leading to greater dependency on  market forces. Export of food products is one of the major reasons for inflation in India, it reduces the availability of agricultural products in India, increasing the demand and thus escalating the prices. Trade and liberalization has also made Indian agriculture vulnerable to global crisis. However, it provides for a national economy and also brought about regional specialization of crops on an efficient basis. Hence, it is essential to learn from the lessons in the past and formulate policies to mitigate the negative impacts on Indian agriculture while being globally connected and liberalized. References Atchi Reddy, M., The Commercialization of Agriculture in Nellore District: Effects on Wages, Employment and Tenancy. † in Essays on the Commercialization of Indian Agriculture, editors et. al. K.N.Raj, 163-83. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985. Avineri, Shlomo editor. Karl Marx on Colonialism and Modernization. Garden City: 1969. Barber, William. British Economic Thought and India 1600-1858: A Study in the History of Development Economics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975. Bardhan, Pranab K. Land, Labor, and Rural Poverty: Essays in Development Economics. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1984. Bhatia, B.M. Famines in India, 1860-1965. New York (1967) Beaud, Michel. A History of Capitalism, 1500-1980. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1983. Bernanke, B.S. Essays on the Great Depression. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2000 Bharadwaj, Krishna. â€Å"A View on Commercialisation in Indian Agriculture and the Development of Capitalism.† The Journal of Peasant Studies 12, no. 4 (1985): 7-25. Chaudhuri, Binay Bhushan. â€Å"The Process of Agricultural Commercialisation in Eastern India During British Rule:A Reconsideration of the Nations of ‘Forced Commercialisation’ and ‘Dependent Peasantry’.† In Meanings in Agriculture: Essays in South Asian History and Economics, Editor Peter Robb, 71-91. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1996. Dutt, R. C. Economic History of India in the Victorian Age, 1837-1901. London (1906). Greenough, Paul R. Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943-1944. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982. Habib, Irfan (ed.), The Cambridge Economic History of India, Vol. 1, c.1200-c.1757 New Delhi: Orient Longman (1982). 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The British Industrial Revolution: An Economic Perspective. Boulder: Westview Press, 1993. Naoroji, Dadabhai. Poverty and British Rule in India. 1901. http://www.historydiscussion.net/british-india/expansion-and-commercialization-ofagriculture-during-the-british-rule-in-india/640 (accessed on September 4th, 2014) Raj, K.N. Neeladari Bhattacharya, Sumit Guha, and Shakti Padhi (ed.), Essays on Commercialization of Agriculture in India. Delhi: Oxford University Press, (1985), p. viii. Rajasekhar, D. â€Å"Commercialization of Agriculture and Changes in Distribution of Land Ownership in Kurnool District of Andhra 9C.1900-1950).† The South Indian Economy: Agrarian Change, Industrial Structure, and State Policy, C1914-1947, 78-119. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1991. Ray, Rajat Kanta. â€Å"The Bazaar: Changing Structural Characteristics in the Indigenous Section of the Indian Economy Before and After the Great Depression.† The Indian Economic and Social History Review 25, no. 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Effects of Advertising

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Political Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Hedda Gabler, examine her character. How does she arouse both sympathy Essay

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SWOT Analysis of High-End Consignment Clothing Store - Essay Example Consignment stores are managed in a way that both the consignee and the consignor are in the queue to make some money. As per the rule book a consignor has the right to scrap the partnership if it feels the business is moving at a tortoise pace and can take its goods back from the consignee as the deal is for a limited period of time between the two (Andre, 2004, p. 218-219). When consignment stores become part of any discussion then USA is surely to be highlighted as the country which has some popular high-end consignment stores which over the years have been a prime destination for many abstemious shoppers. Some of these big names are Her Friend’s Closet, Frugal Boutique, The closet, Clothes Circuit: Dallas Upscale Retail, etc. These stores offer brand with style at affordable price and are a big hit amongst consumers (Downtownbend.org, 2012). Consignment stores are popular hangout for a large segment of people and these stores are no less attractive than the branded stores down the street and have a friendly ambience for the customers who love to shop in these stores. To analyze such stores what better than to take a popular store as an example. Clothes Circuit: Dallas Upscale Retail is one such high-end consignment store for women and who are into this business for nearly 30 years. It would be interesting to know why this store is popular amongst women. What makes the store a strong competitor? What are its strengths and weaknesses? To analyze these queries a SWOT analysis can be a handy tool and provide a gist of Clothes Circuits business plan (Clothes Circuit, 2012) SWOT Analysis of Clothes Circuit: a) Strength: The biggest strength of the store lies in its low price for branded clothing range though used but in great shape to even confuse customers for first-hand product. b) Weakness: Weakness can be many but the major being that it doesn’t create hype through large section of the population which may affect the business. c) Opportunity: Th e weakness of the store can be turned into favorable opportunity by targeting a particular segment of customers through various promotional activities to create a better communication plan using promotional mix to its best use. d) Threat: The biggest threat for the store is limited deal between the consignee & consignor. Secondly if the clothes are not in proper shape then selling them becomes a problem. Also proper fitting becomes a problem with limited availability. But threat can be converted into opportunity if the store can provide a tailor for cloth fitting as per customers body shape & size and make sure that clothes available are in good condition (Dingell, 2009). Apart from SWOT analysis there are other factors also which plays a significant role in analyzing the credibility of Clothes Circuit store. The elements of analysis to get a picture perfect view of the business strategies implemented by the store can be divided into internal & external factors. Internal factors: i) Strategy: A proper strategy to attain higher market share in consignment clothing store

The Blue Kite by Tian Zhuangzhuang Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

The Blue Kite by Tian Zhuangzhuang - Essay Example These significant historical events are used to tie together the overall dramatic expression of the time while showing the debates that were a part of Beijing in the 1950s. Shot – by – Shot Analysis The scene which shows the historical and dramatic features most is in the climax and end portion. This begins with the soldiers that are surrounding Tietou’s father. The scene begins with a close up shot of glasses being knocked onto the ground then leads into a symbol of the new army of China. This is surrounded by voices that are shouting for Tietou’s father to get up. A close shot then moves into Tietou’s father, who is passed out then immediately zooms out to show the soldiers, all as children, who are surrounding him. The camera stays in this same position with a girl who continues to hit the father combined with the soldiers pushing the father. The noise, quick zooms and subject matter shown combines to show the drama of the situation while combining the political upheaval of the situation within this one section. The change occurs with a close up zoom to the soldiers that are on one side with the statement to get a stretcher. The camera then goes back and forth between close ups of the soldiers and of the father who is still being beaten and pushed. The scene changes to a close up of Tietou’s mom who is outside by a tree. The scene changes by showing her walk into the building after hearing shouting from the street. The scene continues by a zoom out of an aisle with soldiers on each side and her walking in the middle. A close up is shown of her pushing to tell the soldiers to stop because of his heart failure. The shouting at this point stops to listen to her; however, it quickly changes when a political statement is made about counter – revolutionary. This again heightens the tension of the scene, specifically with the political term used and the movement from the close up of his wife to the soldiers surrounding the area. The scene then changes to show the soldiers carrying his father down the steps in a stretcher and each soldier pushing the other. The drama heightens when the soldiers move to the streets and begin s houting â€Å"Down with Wu Leishing.† A close up is shown of the man who is now unconscious then moves into the soldiers shouting. The wife is shown as being pushed by the soldiers, then is followed by Tietou coming in and pushing toward his father then his mother. The camera stays with a mid – zoom to show the boy running into the soldiers; however, it doesn’t show the heads of the soldiers. The perspective is one of the little boy as he runs to find his parents. The pushing moves to a close up shot of the boy being pushed and of close ups of his mother trying to meet him. This is combined with the yelling with â€Å"mom† being heard over the other shots and with the mom’s expression going to her son as she is slapped by the soldiers. Music starts at this point to highlight the drama of the mother and son being torn apart by the soldiers. As the music continues, the soldiers state to beat him to death, throw him on the ground and leave. A close up shot is shown of Tietou glancing up to get his mother, than going to find a piece of wood and to run after the soldiers. The music continues in the back with close up angles. The highlight of this part is

M, a 72 year-old widow with neprohritic syndrome Assignment

M, a 72 year-old widow with neprohritic syndrome - Assignment Example Multiple substances such as, water, urea, creatinine, uremic toxins, and drugs move from the blood into the dialysate, thus facilitating removal from the blood. Solutes are transported across the membrane by either passive diffusion or ultrafiltration. M also received 7 sessions of Plasma Exchange. Plasma Exchange is a procedure in which blood is separated into different parts: red cells, white cell, platelets and plasma. The plasma is removed from the blood and a plasma substitute replaced. M had chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is the treatment which uses anti-cancer drugs to kill cancer (Myeloma) cells. Myeloma is the cancer that affects cells in the bone marrow called plasma cells leading to damage to the kidney. Haemodialysis and Plasma Exchange will correct M's blood chemistry and therefore relieve her present symptoms. M is hypertensive due to fluid overload or as a result of the failure of the kidneys. The Management of M's hypertension will have the highest priority. As Redmond and McClelland (2006) noted prompt recognition and treatment of hypertension are essential because cardiovascular disease including coronary artery disease, atherosclerosis, stroke and left ventricular hypertrophy are the most common cause of death in patients with kidney disease. Risk reduction measures to prevent cardiovascular disease may delay the progression of kidney disease (in ARF or is the effect here Reno protective). ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are the drug of choice (Thomas 2004); however deterioration in renal function may follow initiation of treatment with these medications (DOH 2005, BNF 2006). Since hypertension can have deleterious effects on both cardiovascular and kidney functions, the long-term protection provided by ACE inhibitors (or ARBs) out weighs the risk they pose (Th omas 2004) (this is for ERF is it the same for ARF - CHECK). Because acute renal failure is a catabolic state, the patient can become nutritionally deficient. Total caloric intake should be 30 to 45 kcal (126 to 189 kJ) per kg per day, most of which should come from a combination of carbohydrates and lipids. In patients who are not receiving dialysis, protein intake should be restricted to 0.6 g per kg per day. Patients who are receiving dialysis should have a protein intake of 1 to 1.5 g per kg per day (Agrawal 2000). Hyperphosphatemia The patient has hyperphosphatemia. Phosphate is normally excreted by the kidney and phosphate retention and hyperphosphatemia may occur in ARF. Phosphate - binding agents may be used to retain phosphate ion in the gut. The most common agent is calcicihew, although M is on this drug she needs education on when to take the tablets or maybe increase the dosage. Uremia Caloric intake shou

Carbon footprint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Carbon footprint - Essay Example Other emissions from greenhouses such as Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (N2O, Hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), per fluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulphur Hexafluoride (SF6) are all reported as carbon dioxide emissions. Reporting all the other greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) as a single value of measurement makes it easy to manage, calculate as well as reporting. While carbon dioxide emissions are primarily used as a method of calculating CO2e, there are efforts by the international coordination of standards and control to make sure that an approach that is consistent is adopted for purposes of usage as well as calculation of the value (Weidema 1995). It is worth noting that there are a set of rules referred to as GHG Protocol that are generally used as the basis of calculating carbon footprint. These protocols are in line with the propositions under the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) for national level calculation of carbon emission. Nevertheless, despite the existence of well-built international standards, there are no institutions to enforce such standards, and therefore some companies opt to design their own computation methods. The computations of carbon footprint consist of two key mechanisms which are indirect and direct emissions (McGregor & Vorley 2006). The purpose of this distinction is to enable easy calculation of a particular company or entry as well as to provide a suitable system that eliminates any possibilities of double accounting. It is worth mentioning the various reasons behind computation of carbon footprint, these reasons may include: To set up a true and fair account of carbon emission ( CO2e), the calculations also reduces and simplify the costs associated with carbon emission, in addition, it provides information that facilitates involvement in mandatory as well as voluntary carbon emission reduction programs, the calculation also helps in providing valuable information to the management that can be used to design an effective and viable approach to facilitate the implementation of a carbon management program in an organization (Brenton 2009). Discussion For purposes of computing carbon footprint, it is pertinent to ensure that there are established boundaries of computation. This is because the computation of carbon footprint can be visualized as having a number of boundaries that are different. These boundaries may include: Carbon footprint at the department level, Carbon footprint at the organizational level, Carbon footprint across the supply chain, and the LCA (full life-cycle assessment) on a service or product based model. This study will generally focus on product level carbon foot printing (Kasterine & Vanzetti 2010). As aforementioned, Product carbon foot printing approach is based on LCA (full life-cycle assessment). It is therefore pertinent to describe what is entailed under full life-cycle assessment (LCA) before attempting to understand what product carbon foot printing. LCA boundaries of evaluation broadly encompass the raw materials extraction and processing, manufacturing or production, consumer-use, as well as end-of-life scenarios; this may involve the process of material recycling (Hesselbach & Herrmann 2011). As such, the result obtained from a full life-cycle assessment can be used for purposes of identifying significant impacts on human health and environment emanating from a particular product, and such information can be used to alleviate the impact. The information gathered through LCA evaluation may also be useful in terms of designing an effective strategy that can reduce product cost while at the same time provi ding an opportunity to

International Financial Management - Currencies and Costs Essay

International Financial Management - Currencies and Costs - Essay Example That is, the probability of issuing foreign debt is highly correlated with the degree of foreign operations. Their results are consistent with those of Kedia and Mozumdar (2003), who conclude that firms have to satisfy a demand to hedge via foreign debt. Kedia and Mozumdar (2003), also conclude that the correlation between foreign operations and the probability of issuing foreign debt is consistent with both the role of foreign debt as a hedging instrument and the existence of information barriers. The integration of capital markets implies that financial assets traded in different markets should possess the same risk/return characteristics. Kedia and Mozumdar (2003) however note that the segmentation of capital markets and barriers to international investment could result in opportunities for choosing the currency of debt to minimize funding costs (interest rates). Kedia and Mozumdar (2003) identify two sources of segmentation including legal barriers and Informational sources. According to them legal barriers which constitute a broad variety of restrictions such as differences in tax treatment for foreign and domestic investments, capital controls, security law, and ownership restrictions could give rise to opportunities for multinational companies to reduce their funding rates. It is also evident in the study by Kedia and Mozumdar (2003) that foreign investors face high costs of gathering information about capital markets in different countries and as such domestic companies take advantage of this information asymmetry to issue debt at a low cost than they would have issued to domestic investors. According to Keloharju and Niskanen (2001), issuing in the Euromarket may be more economical since it helps to mitigate withholding taxes and capital controls. They further illustrate that borrowing cost in two currencies can be reduced by borrowing the weaker currency and that tax laws in Finland encourage companies to borrow the foreign currency. Allayannis et al (2003: pp 2669) in their study of the capital structure and financial risk of East Asian Firms with particular emphasis on foreign-currency debt use, provide evidence that differences in home country interest rates and foreign interest rates such as the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR), are important determinants for both home country and foreign debt use. The study finds that the higher (lower) the difference in interest rates, the

Formal Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Formal Report - Essay Example Even the health industry has transformed itself and treating diseases that were considered fatal in the past. Robotic surgeries have also made their space on the surgery schedule boards in hospitals around the world. A procedure that could once only be imagined for a sci-fi adventure has now become a reality. This extensive inclusion of technology that would have raised eyebrows in the past is being accepted and adopted by doctors around the world as a competitive advantage in hospitals. It was only a matter of time that the increasing trend of medical advancement and equipment technology would lead us to the point where we risk our lives in the hands of a robot. The robot, being controlled by a surgeon, performs the procedure on the patient. The surgeon might be located a few blocks away or across a couple of oceans. The revolutionary step in the field of health sciences has attracted many; however, it is still not free from risks and reservations. Just like any other invention in i ts initiation phase, robotic surgeries need to take few more steps to ensure minimal risks and dangers for the patients. 1. Introduction The robotic technology, that started with making small machines perform interesting stunts or house chores, have been given a more creditable status in the medical field since they are being used to save human lives. The initiation of the idea of letting robotic arms and other components come in contact with the patient, rather than the surgeon, initiated in 1980s. The innovative concept attracted the technologists in the industry and thus gave way to surgeons being miles away from the physical location of the operation and relying on technology to maintain connection from the surgeon to the robot that operates on the patient. The state of the art surgical procedure is being commonly known as, ‘Da Vinci Surgery’; this name has been given by the manufacturers of this innovative robot technology, Intuitive Surgical Inc. The company, Intu itive Surgical Inc (2013) explained that the name is kept after the inventive artist for his passion for human anatomy and automation in the 1450s. Leonardo Da Vinci is known to design the first robot of its kind in 1495 which was discovered hundreds of years later in 1950s. Leddy, Lendvay and Satava (2010) gave valuable information about the initiation of the idea of such a risky mode of treatment where the surgeon cannot control the consequences of any atypical scenario; robotic surgeries were initially aimed to perform remote surgeries in the battlefield to ensure immediate treatment to soldiers. The robotic equipment was mounted on the top of the vehicles and surgeons were expected to perform the surgery with the aid of the robotic arm while sitting in their own comfortable space. These authors defined it as the surgical procedure that separates the surgeon from the patient by adding a robotic device in the middle of them. With the passage of time, the concept made its way in th e civilian territory and started being used for commercial treatment. The passive role of medical equipment and technological devices has been transformed into a major one in an operating room. A diverse range of procedures are now being performed with robots being the direct contact with the patients, namely gynecological and urological procedures and many mores. 2. Research Quality and Patient Safety Division: Commonwealth of Massachusetts Board of Registration in Medicine. (2013) stated that robotic surgeries have started becoming

Chapter 1 indians the settlements of america Essay Example for Free

Chapter 1 indians the settlements of america Essay 1. Jamestown was the first colony that gets found. It was there where the first permanent settlement occurs. Jamestown was a poor location for colonization. The men dug wells to obtain water, but the water they found could not drink because it was contaminated. In addition, the ground was wet and had too many mosquitos. The mosquitoes were carriers of diseases and made the settlers sick. After a year, about half of the settlers had died of disease and starvation. The Native American Indians kept the English alive providing them with food. The English were so busy trying to discover gold that they didnt bother trying to grow food. That was when Captain John Smith became leader of the Jamestown colony. He saved the colony by creating a rule, which maintained that anyone who did not work would have no right to eat. This made the colonist planted food, and they were forced to build shelters and fences to protect against any attack. These American Indians or â€Å"Amerinds†, showed them great diversity of character and attainments due to the differences in climate, soil, food, building material, and the activities necessary to preserve life. They taught the settlers how to plant and grow corn, beans, squash, etc. and also helped them to establish good relations with neighboring Indian tribes. On the other hand what the English settlers offered to Native Americans Indians was different. In exchange for food, they offered them weapons, horses, cattle, sheep, vegetables and fruits, hatchets, swords, metal pots, skillets and knives, which would give them the technological advantage over their enemies. They brought not only tools for the conquest of the wilderness, but also the forms of government, the religion, the books, and the languages of the Old World. But besides the different technologies and different lifestyles that they offered to them, the English brought with them different types of diseases, such as smallpox, which was lethal to Amerinds, this produced a lethal epidemic that affected a large portion of the tribe. American Indians had a very different culture from the English people. Despite some successful interaction, questions of ownership and control of land and trust between peoples, caused conflicts arise. Virginia suffers very frequent periods of drought and by that time the colonists did not understand that the natives were ill prepared to feed them during the hard times. In the years after 1612, settlers cleared the land to prepare it for export farms dedicated tobacco, its crucial crop for economic purposes. When the tobacco exhausted farmland, the settlers continuously had to clear more areas to replace them. This small wooded land was that the Indians could use to hunt and supplement their food crops. The more settlers arrived, the more demanding land. The spread of tobacco cultivation altered life for everyone, because its cultivation required abundant land. The tribes tried to fight the invasion of the settlers. The main conflicts occurred with the indigenous slaughter of 1622 and another in 1644, both under the command of the younger brother of the late Chief Powhatan, Chief Opechancanough. Recognizing the danger, the war leader launched coordinated attacks along the James River on March 22, 1622. By the end of the day 347 colonist lay dead, and only a timely warning from two Christian converts saved Jamestown itself from destruction. Europeans had a very mixed picture of the native Indians. On one hand, they believed that the Indians could be soft and generous and also attentive and willing to trade. At first it was a very positive image and the settlers had hoped that they would be welcomed with open arms and friendly hands. They wanted to believe their way to the Garden of Eden. 2. After reading the three sources that tell the story of the Indians and the Settlement of America, I found it more accurate the description number 3 A people and a Nation (2008) that gives us Mary Beth Norton, because I think is a very complete description about the events that occurred with the New World. She begins by describing how other civilizations of America were. She mentions how that residents, of what is now central Mexico began to cultivate food crops, especially corn, squash, beans, avocados, and peppers; while in the Andes Mountains of South America, people began to cultivate potatoes, and it was thanks to the improvement of these techniques of agriculture that could be spread this knowledge through America with the exception of those areas with harsher climates. Thanks to agriculture most of the Americans began to adopt a more sedentary life, without the need to spend so much time hunting and gathering. I believe that it is very appropriate that she mentions these details, since it is important to us as readers have an idea of how other civilizations in the Americas were, in this manner we can understand a little more about the civilization of the Native Americans Indians, because in some way they were very similar to each other. In the same way, in this source the author also makes mention of another significant civilization of America, the Aztecs; they were one of the most important and recognized civilizations of the American continent, they had a style a little different from other civilizations, they tended to be a little more wild, they use to forced their neighbors to pay tribute in textiles, gold, foodstuffs and even in human beings, who were sacrificed to the war god Huitzilopochtli. After the author made mention of these events, she continues her story mentioning the arrival of the English for the first time in 1607 to a region near to Chesapeake Bay called Tsenacomoco. It was a group of 104 men and boys, who established the palisaded settlement called Jamestown. This source tells us the beginning of a radical change to this Nation; the author mentions the number of people, the name of the region in which they arrived, and the date on which this happened; it seems to me that these data are necessary to know for any American person, I think it is important for all of us who live in this continent know this historical fact, and more specifically know what happened in this country. I am convinced that this source is more accurate, because it shows us these and more details, and is more precise describing how was the relationship between the colonists and the Native American Indians. It shows us what was the difference between these two different civilizations, and at the same time expresses us which were their similarities. Both groups held deep religious beliefs, subsisted primarily through agriculture, accepted social and political hierarchy, and observed well-defined gender roles. Despite the coexistence that came to have each other, both groups continued to have their own beliefs and thoughts, which for me in somehow led them to start a war, because the settlers wanted to impose their will on the Indians, and at the same time the Indians wanted to not let this happen, and also they were tired of being their food source and carriers of diseases that the settlers brought.

Personality And Employee Behaviour

Personality And Employee Behaviour The author through this essay would be elaborating on the relationship between the personality of an individual with that of the various factors which determine the employee behaviour in an organizational setting. For this purpose the essay first talks about both organizational behaviour and personality in brief and moves onto discussing the various theories relating to personality (Big Five Factor Model and Myers Briggers Type Indicator) along with the criticism that they have undergone over the years. The author would then be linking various employee behaviour with that of the personality of an individual and based on the research done by various authors and in the end would be presenting managerial implications which would be beneficial for the well-being of an organization. Keywords: Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Personality, Big Five Factor Model, Myers Briggs Type Indicator, job attitude, job motivation. Introduction In the span of the last two decades, organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) has been the foremost topic researchers have studied (Allen and Rush, 1998; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, and Fetter, 1991; Organ, 1997). Many researchers have pursued the study of OCBs on the notion that OCBs helps boost organizational effectiveness (Organ, D. 1988; Podsakoff and Mackenzie, 1994, 1997; Walz and Niehoff, 1996). This notion was a clear part of Organs (1988) definition of OCB. According to Organ, D. (1988) Organizational Citizenship Behaviour was defined as, Individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system and that in the aggregate promotes effective functioning of the organization. Singh, A. and Singh, A., (2009). Does Personality Predict Organisational Citizenship Behaviour among Managerial Personnel. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 291-298. An examination of past studies has identified organizational citizenship behaviour as a significant aspect of job performance (Motowidlo and Van Scotter, 1994; Motowidlo, Borman, and Van Scotter, 1997). It discusses behaviours that pro ­mote the changing nature of the organizational and social network and psycho ­logical climate that surrounds the technical tasks (Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., 2010). These behaviours encompass help and cooperation with others and persistent enthusiasm. Organiza ­tional citizenship behaviour could be split into two parts namely, job dedication and interpersonal facilitation (Van Scotter and Motowidlo, 1996). Job dedication includes conforming, disciplining, and motivating behaviours that promote the organizations best interest. Interpersonal facili ­tation refers to a series of interpersonal behaviours to help maintain the or ­ganizations interpersonal environment, such as inclined to help co-workers/participation in teamwork and cooperation. (Van Scotter and Motowidlo, 1996) (Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., (2010). From proactive personality to organizational citizenship behaviour: Mediating role of Harmony. Psychological Reports, Vol. 106, No. 3, pp. 755-765) The five-factor model of personality (FFM) or big five has led research in the field of personality in the past two decades, and has provided a significant degree of convergence in the trait factor analytic psychology (Robertson and Callinan, 1998). The five factors categorised as neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (Costa and McCrae, 1992). Clear measurement frameworks have been provided by these factors to personality psychology and are responsible for the revival of interest in personality in organizational psychology (Singh, A. and Singh, A., 2009). In the early 1990s, new prospects for research in the field of Organiza ­tional citizenship behaviour were brought about by the emergence of Big-Five in the field of personality. Researchers and practicing managers can gain the most valuable explanation of organizational citizenship behaviours through an employees individual disposition (Organ, D. 1990). Through their work, researchers have investigated the predisposition and Organiza ­tional citizenship behaviour relationship (Organ, 1990; Organ, 1994). Singh, A. and Singh, A., (2009). Does Personality Predict Organisational Citizenship Behaviour among Managerial Personnel. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 291-298. Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) Organ (1988, p. 4) defined OCB as the individual behavior that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization. By discretionary, Organ (1988, p. 4) described OCB as the type of behavior that is not a part of the job description, but rather a matter of personal choice, such that its omission is not generally understood as punishable. Most of the studies examining the structure of OCB have agreed that it is a multidimensional concept (e.g. Graham1989; Moorman and Blakely, 1995; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, and Fetter, 1990). Graham (1989), for example, proposed a four-dimension model of OCB consisting of: interpersonal helping, individual initiative, personal industry, and loyal boosterism. Interpersonal helping involves helping co-workers in their jobs when such help is needed. Individual initiative is communicating to others in the work place to improve individual and group performance. Personal industry includes the performance of specific tasks above and beyond the call of duty. Finally, loyal boosterism involves the promotion of the organizational image to outsiders (Moorman and Blakely, 1995). (Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., (2010). From proactive personality to organizational citizenship behaviour: Mediating role of Harmony. Psychological Reports, Vol. 106, No. 3, pp. 755-765) Proactive Personality and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour In recent years proactive personality has captured the attention of researchers among personality predictors of organizational citizenship behaviour. The notion of proactive personality as a stable disposition was introduced after the proactive components of organizational behaviour were explored (Bateman, T. and Crant, J., 1993). The belief of being able to create and change the environment and actually taking an initiative in doing so, is a characteristic people bearing strong proactive personalities have. By negotiating selecting, improvising, ma ­nipulating, and evoking the environment, proactive individ ­uals are able to influence their environments (Buss, D., 1987 as cited by Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., 2010). Proactive personality and organizational citizenship behaviour are closely related to each other. As cited by Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., (2010) this relationship was tested by Crant, J. (1995) with a sample of real estate salespersons. When work social desirability, experience, and factors of personality like extraversion and conscientiousness were controlled, an additional 8% variance in job perfor ­mance was accounted for, due to proactive personality. Hierarchical regression results in the same research indicated that proactive personality accounted for more variance than Big Five personality factors. Therefore, it was suggested that this personality variable had the strongest positive predictive value for job performance, especially organizational citizenship behaviour (Thompson, 2005). (Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., (2010). From proactive personality to organizational citizenship behaviour: Mediating role of Harmony. Psychological Reports, Vol. 106, No. 3, pp. 755-765) Contexts as Moderators in Organizational Behaviour Research The concept of proactive personality was proposed Bateman, T. and Crant, J. (1993). During their research observed that the predictive value of proactive person ­ality might differ in weak and strong contexts. Johns, G. (2006, p. 387) defined contexts as, Situations [that] vary in their capacity to abet or constrain human agency. The expression of individual differences tends to get constrained due to perceived strong situations with obvious norms and rigid roles. For the expression of such differences, weak situations permit more opportunity or latitude. Social structure is a classification of discrete context, in which behaviour may be influenced directly by specific situational variables or it may moderate relationships between variables. While western cultural contexts are more similar to weak contexts, Asian cultures may represent strong contexts (Mowday and Sutton, 1993 as cited by Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., 2010). The predictive value of proac ­tive personality for organizational citizenship behavior might be stron ­ger, under weak contexts, (Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., 2010). For example, a review of some studies showed that (Shang, J. and Gan, Y. (2009) and Chan, D. (2006) consisted samples from Asian cultures, a type of strong context while on the other hand, western studies show that their samples mostly worked in the sales industry, a typically weak context. Thus the general association of proactive personality and behaviour may not be sig ­nificant, in this context. Thus, in such cases moderators or a context have significant prominence. Although proactive personality is superficially encouraged in organizations, human resources practitioners note the other side of the coin: proactivity refers to neglecting or violating rules and disciplines and implies the intention to change the current environment. Thus, a new idea being put into practice or proposed may threaten or pose a disturban ce to an organization (Jiang, L., 2007 as cited by Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., 2010). He further claimed that employees confor ­mity and altruism is the bridge from proactivity to organizational citizenship behaviour. In the event of this idea being translated into a research hypothesis, it would be theorized that personality traits moderate the relation of proactive personality and organizational citizenship behaviour. (Gan, Y. and Cheung, F., (2010). From proactive personality to organizational citizenship behaviour: Mediating role of Harmony. Psychological Reports, Vol. 106, No. 3, pp. 755-765) The Big Five Personality Model Personality has been examined from a variety of theoretical perspective and in the past researchers in the field of personality assessment had to face a wide array of scales with little guidance. One staring place for a shared taxonomy is the natural language of personality description. This work began with the extraction of all personality relevant from the dictionary and guiding them with lexical hypothesis. After such extractions took place in various languages Allport and Odbert (1936) (as cited in Pervin, L., and John, O., 1999, pp. 103) conducted a seminal lexical study of the personality relevant terms in English that could be used to distinguish the behaviour of one person from the other. Using both semantic and empirical clustering procedures as well as his own reviews of the personological literature available at that time, Citadell reduced the 4500 traits to a mere 35 variables. What personality psychology needed was a descriptive model or taxonomy which would permit researchers to study specified areas rather than examining various domains of personality. After decades of research the field approached consensus on a general taxonomy of personality traits, the Big Five personality dimensions. (Pervin, L., and John, O., 1999). These factors are typically labelled as: Extraversion or Surgency (talkative, assertive, energetic) Agreeableness (good natured, cooperative, trustful) Conscientiousness (orderly, responsible, dependable) Emotional Stability versus Neuroticism (calm, not neurotic, not easily upset) Intellect or Openness (intellectual, imaginative, independent-minded) The Big Five personality model provided a starting point for vigorous research in-order to explicate the taxonomy in various dimensions. Hofstee, Kliers, Raad, Golberg, and Ostendorf (1997) compared the big five factor structures of personality traits across various languages and found out that the Big Five factors recur across languages in a relative but not in a strict sense. Trull and Geary (1997) also compared the Big Five structure across American and Chinese samples and found that the scores of the construct were not significantly different which is in line with the research of Yik and Bond (1993). Borkenau and Ostendorf (1998) found out that five factor model ignores the strength of individual behaviour and is not wedded to the trait approach. Saucier and Goldberg (1998) suggested that future research needs to be done to supplement the Big Five to extend variable selection outside those personality traits which have been conventionally defined and opened a new dimension for future research. Digman (1997) found two higher order factors in the Big Five which he termed as alpha and beta linking alpha with socialization and beta with personal growth while DeYoung (2006) termed these as stability (alpha) and Plasticity (beta). Critics have argued that the Big Five does not provide a complete theory of personality. The Big Five was never intended as a comprehensive personality theory and was developed to account for structural relations among personality traits. Thus like most structural models it provides an account of personality that is primarily descriptive rather than explanatory (Pervin, L., and John, O., 1999). McAdams (1992) highlighted six important limitations of FFM and stated that it can only be viewed as one important model in personality but not the integrative model of personality. The use of factor analysis as a methodology has also come under the scanner and has been found that findings through this methodology have been less than adequate as statistical procedures are mechanical truth generators while psychological results require a psychological interpretation (Block, 1995). A frequent objection has also been that five dimensions cannot possibly capture all of the variations in human personality owing to which Rushton and Irwing (2008) found that General Factor Personality (GFP) occupies the apex of the hierarchical structure of personality followed by Big Two factors of Alpha (Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness) and Beta (Extraversion, Openness) with the Big Five at the third level. In order to make FFM an integrative personality Denissen and Penke (2008) conceptualized the Five Factor Model as stable individual differences in peoples motivational reactions to circumscribed classes of environmental stimuli resulting in a theoretical framework which would bridge the traditional divide between structure and process oriented approaches in-order for FFM to truly become a scientific model of personality. Thus research in diverse areas such as behaviour genetics, molecular genetics, personality stability change and accuracy and bias in interpersonal perception will be instrumental in building and refining a comprehensive theoretical account of the Big Five (Pervin, L., and John, O., 1999). Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) The MBTI is based on the theories of psychologist Carl Jung and helps in measuring an individuals personality preferences over four dimensions and is often used by psychologists in career counselling and group dynamics analysis (Ludford and Terveen, 2003) The four dimensions are outlined as follows (Robbins, S., Judge, T. and Sanghi, S., 2009): Extraversion / Introversion: Extrovert individuals are outgoing, sociable and assertive while introverts are quiet and shy Sensing / Intuition: Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order while intuitive rely on unconscious processes. Thinking / Feeling: Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems whereas feelings rely on their personal values and emotions. Judging / Perceiving: Judging types want control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured while perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous. These classifications together describe 16 personality types. The MBTI is widely practiced by organizations including Apple Computers, ATT, Citigroup, GE, Tata Motors and many hospitals and educational institutions and even defence services (Robbins, S., Judge, T. and Sanghi, S., 2009). MBTI is a tool that can be used to achieve effective communication with other people by knowing their preferences and then communicate in a way they understand. In spite of the popularity of MBTI as a personality assessment model, it has had its share of criticism. MBTI based on Jungians model does not offer any scientific, experimental proof to support the existence, sequence, orientation or manifestation of these functions. As the accuracy of the MBTI depends on honesty of the person being tested and MBTI not using any scale to assess the exaggerated or socially desirable responses is susceptible to fake responses (Furnham, A., 1990). It is also criticised for forcing a person into either one type o r another with no in between types available. The best that can be said is that MBTI can be a valuable tool for increasing self-awareness and providing career guidance but as results are unrelated to job performance managers shouldnt use it as a selection test for job candidates (Robbins, S., Judge, T. and Sanghi, S., 2009). Linking Personality with Determinants of Employee Behaviour The author would now elaborate on the research that has been done on personality and how it affects the employee behaviour in an organization. Personality forms the most important factor in an individuals behaviour and is complex to understand individuals as a whole. Individuals should be considered as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾closed boxà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¸ and in-order to benefit from humans in an efficient and productive way, human resource managers should try to understand the personalities of their employees (Aksu et. al., 2009). In an organization when self-managed work groups are formed the most important question that is asked is on what basis should employees be selected, Thoms, P., Moore, K. and Scott, K., (1996) found that traits like Neuroticism, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness were significantly related to self-efficacy for participating in self-managed work groups. By examining the link of Big Five personality traits with the ability to show self-control moderated the anger-aggression link it was found that conscientiousness was negatively related with anger and moderated the link between anger and aggression whereas agreeableness was positively related with anger only when the levels of Conscientiousness was low. (Campbell, et. al. 2007) and different people of personality traits showed different types of interpersonal stress coping responses. In extreme cases where these conflicts result to loneliness it has been found that loneliness is negatively impacted by Extraversion and Agreeableness while high levels of Neuroticism can lead to loneliness (Atak, H., 2009). Transformational leadership in an organization has the potential of motivating the employees and establishing high rates of job performance and it has been found that leaders associated a transformational leadership with being extraverted, intuitive and perceiving preferences while subordinates associate rate sensing preference with transformational leadership (Hautala, T., 2006). During new product development (NPD) in an organization it has been found that leader openness has a significant direct as well as indirect influence on NPD project performance through teamwork under high uncertainty but not under low uncertainty conditions. In-order for an organization to achieve success it is very critical to have motivated employees and when the link of personality and motivation was analysed it was found that extraverts reported to being attracted to Herzberg motivation factors in workplace and neuroticism rated importance of hygiene factors (Furnham, A., Forde, L. and Ferrari, K., 1999 ). Job performance is an important criterion for an organizational setup and organizations have always been on the lookout for measures which can enhance the job performance of its employees. Barrick, M. and Mount, M. (1991) which was the most cited article of 1990s, investigated the relationship between big five personality dimensions with job performance criteria for various occupational groups and also stated that the framework can be extended to various subfields of personnel psychology such as personnel selection, performance appraisal and training and development. Wang, M. and Erdheim, J. (2007) stated that extraversion was significantly related to learning goal orientation and proving goal orientation while Neuroticism was marginally related to proving goal orientation and significantly related to avoiding goal orientation. Their results further confirm that personality has a significant impact on performance motivation (Barrick, M. and Mount, M., 1991) and clarify the personality performance relation. Sawyerr, O., Srinivas, S. and Wang, S. (2009) in the service context found that there is a negative relationship between openness to new experience and service performance leading to lower ratings by their supervisors, with no other personality variable having a significant relationship with service performance. They also stated that Conscientiousness and internal LOC were negatively associated and agreeableness and emotional stability were positively related with absenteeism. They also found a positive association between internal LOC as well as openness to new experience to turnover and a negative association with emotional stability and intent to turnover. Along with the personality and job performance relationship another relationship which holds a lot of importance for the organizations is the personality-job attitude relationship. Burnett, M., Williamson, I. and Bartol, K. (2009) established that conscientiousness and extraversion can be an important moderator of the interactive effect of procedural fairness and outcome favourability on job attitude. Bernard, N., Dollinger S. and Ramaniah, N. (2002) stated that the imposter phenomenon was related to people with high Neuroticism and low Conscientiousness in an organization. Erdheim, J., Wang, M. and Zickar, M. (2006) explored the linkages between the personality factors and organizational commitment and stated that Extraversion was significantly related to affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment; neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness to experience were all significantly related to continuance commitment and agreeableness was significantly related to normative commitment. It has also been found that and Over-commitment and depressive symptoms were associated with high levels of neuroticism and effort reward imbalance (Vearing, A. and Mak, A., 2007). Personality of an individual also relates to the tendency of choosing a certain career strategy and has been found that more extroverted individuals utilized a host of career management strategies than their more introverted intended counterparts and also found that conflict frequency is negatively related to individual well-being especially when individuals are low in agreeableness, extraversion or emotional stability. Thus we see that personality has been a hot topic for research amongst the researchers and there has been an extensive study on how personality affects an employees behaviour in an organizational setting but due to the word limit as well as accessibility constraint the author would have not been able to include all the factors which are affected by personality. Managerial Implications On the basis of the theoretical framework stated above, the author would like to suggest various strategies which followed in-order can be adopted and applied in organizations to overcome the negative implications of personality on the various factors of employee behaviour in an organizational context. Traits of a particular culture should be looked at as advantages by managers especially in the hospitality industry and they should tap this potential in an appropriate manner to gain a competitive edge. Organizations can achieve this goal by aligning their actions with the selection of appropriate people, compliant with company image, tourism sector realities, and customer needs and expectations and in turn benefit from the personality test. (Aksu, et. al., 2009) In advance of the decision whether to have self-managed work groups, organizations should focus on the personality of individuals before selecting candidates to work on this type of structure. (Thoms, P., Moore, K. and Scott, K., 1996). Managers need to be very critical while providing a negative feedback as people with lower conscientiousness would not be able to regulate their anger and choose to aversive drink choice and people with higher agreeableness may be more sensitive to destructive interpersonal tactics and express more anger but would be able to control that anger and choose to more socially acceptable responses (Campbell, et. al. 2007). Managers should be vigilant and identify neuroticism at early stage among employees and help people refrain from entering a lonely state and thus saving them from taking a drastic step. (Atak, H., 2009). Among organizations with differences in the work related factors in which different people seek out and value them, it would be very helpful to pay attention to trait variables in selection to ensure better person environment fit. An apt way for organizations to deal with different groups of people is employing diverse performance schemes for them. To achieve the highest level of performance from individuals, motivators must encourage the extrovert with potential rewards and prompt the introvert with judicial use of punitive threat (Furnham, A., Forde, L. and Ferrari, K., 1999). By implementing the process of assessing leaders from the self-rating as well as subordinates perspective, it would help enhance the mutual understanding of a leader-subordinate relationship which would also assist the leaders to be realistic when rating themselves, thus benefiting organisations. (Hautala, T., 2006). Organizations by examining the relationship between personality with service performance, absenteeism and turnover would be able to develop recruitment and selection strategies, work redesign programs and training that would ultimately benefit the organization by reducing employee costs and enhancing their wellbeing (Sawyerr, O., Srinivas, S. and Wang, S., 2009). Traits like extraversion and neuroticism are the strongest predictors of goal orientation. Rather than focusing on choosing only conscientiousness, organizations should employ selection methods that measure these traits too. In order to induce work motivation and attain high levels of goal orientation, organizations should focus on post entry work experiences and should also adopt selection procedures based on personality measures (Wang, M. and Erdheim, J., 2007). Organizations can greatly reduce the turnover rate of employees and improve the working conditions by linking what the employees are looking forward to in an organization (Burnett, M., Williamson, I. and Bartol, K., 2009) In an organisation, as managers have the onus of identifying imposter phenomenon in the employees, it is important for them to identify such traits in the earlier stages. By focusing on depression and anxiety problems with employees and also working on their lack of self-discipline, managers should assist employees providing them the right kind of treatment (Bernard, N., Dollinger S. and Ramaniah, N., 2002) Organizations can effectively deal with employees experiencing elevated risk for being depressed by providing stress prevention and management programs, by investing in increasing supervisor and co-worker support, by using social activities to increase co-worker support and should also focus on decreasing extrinsic efforts and increasing rewards (Vearing, A. and Mak, A., 2007). Conclusion It is evident from the above discussion that progress has been made in the field of personality psychology in terms of advancement of research methodologies and techniques of data analysis as well as in awareness of the range of variables that need to be considered to understand complex personality functioning. Over the years, research in the field of personality has evolved and an increasing number of researchers in an effort to generalize and increase the practical applicability of these personality theories are challenging the past theories. With the advent of globalisation and organizations interacting with culturally diverse populace, the traditional approaches which were used by organizations to manage any problem are out-dated in todays dynamic work culture. It is thus necessary for organizations to recognise the fact that in-order to keep abreast with competition and achieve customer satisfaction; their primary objectives should encompass gratifying their employees and this journey begins with the interpretation of their personalities and using in an ethical way for the betterment of the organization. With a vast amount of research being undertaken on personality and wide range of variables being interpreted to understand the complexities of the personality domain, it is obligatory on the part of organizations to keep themselves updated so as to facilitate their employees to serve customers better. Thus organizations need to place high level of importance on understanding the personality of its employees as personality impacts variables such as employee behaviour, job performance, job attitude, motivation etc. which are the vital functions from an organizational perspective and all these variables directly or indirectly affect the bottom-line of the organization.

Drinking And Dining Philosophers Philosophy Essay

Drinking And Dining Philosophers Philosophy Essay The Dining Philosophers and Drinking Philosophers resolution problems are of very famous and of practical importance in Distributed systems to resolve conflicts between processes. It illustrates the problem of having multiple processes contending for multiple shared resources in the same time. However, the conflict resolution between processes usually happens in favor of some process against the other (victim process). Some solutions allow the processes to enter a deadlock situation and then recover from it by choosing that victim process. In this case, it is very important to make sure that the victim process selection is not always the same to ensure some sort of fairness in the system and prevent starvation from occurring. Other solutions dont allow the system to enter a deadlock situation from the beginning and so prevent the crash from happening at the first place. In this survey paper, we will discuss some of the different proposed solutions to that very famous problem and try to compare between them and find the advantages, disadvantages, and most suitable applications for each one. Introduction: Figure1. Dining Philosophers Problem The dining philosophers problem is a very old problem in concurrent computation. It can be described as having five philosophers sitting at a circular table doing one of two things: either eating or thinking. They sit at the circular table with a bowl of spaghetti in front of each philosopher. A fork is placed between each philosopher and his neighbor. A philosopher must eat with two forks. A philosopher can only use the forks next to him. The philosophers here represent processes in a distributed system. The philosophers never interact or talk to each other (there is no communication between the processes), which brings high possibility of deadlock situation when every philosopher holds a one fork and waits for the other one which is already held by his neighboring philosopher. A deadlock situation means having a set of processes each of which is waiting for one or more resources in order to continue its execution. However, one or more required resources are held by another process in the set forming a cycle in the wait-for graph (a graph connects the set of processes each of which pointing to the process currently holding the required resource). The problem is used to illustrate having a deadlock situation in a distributed system. It reaches a deadlock situation if it reaches a cycle of requests that were not granted. In this case, 1st philosopher is waiting for a fork held by 2nd philosopher, while 2nd one is waiting for a fork held by the 3rd one and so on, making a circular chain of non-granted requests to resources. Starvation is another issue that may occur and should be taken care of when resolving the conflicts between philosophers after reaching a deadlock situation. Starvation in general means to have a specific process utilizing some resource all the time without giving the chance to other processes to use that resource. In this case, the other processes are starving. In dining philosophers problem, this happens by selecting a victim philosopher and suspending him for a small amount of time and then let him try to grab the fork again. Starvation occurs if the same philosopher is always chosen as the victim. This depends on the mechanism used to resolve the conflict and recover from the deadlock situation. Drinking Philosophers Problem is very similar to the Dining philosophers problem with some differentiations. It is assumed that a number of philosophers are sitting next to each other (imagine the same round table as the dining philosophers problem). There is a bottle between each pair of neighboring philosophers. Each philosopher can start drinking at any time (concurrent execution of processes). However, when a drinking session is about to start for a philosopher, he needs a set of bottles. This means that he may need one of the two bottles next to him (on the left or on the right) or he may need both. If he needs both bottles to drink, he cannot start drinking until he grabs both bottles (resources). A solution is needed to this problem to coordinate the requests raised by each philosopher without preventing some special cases from occurring. For example, it may happen that all the philosophers want to drink at the same time and they all ask for the bottle on their left hand side. This is a valid case which should not be prevented by the solution algorithm because this prevents the processes from executing concurrently. There have been a lot of solutions proposed to the dining philosophers problem. One of them is the Waiter solution. It is a simple solution that introduces a waiter at the table. A philosopher who is willing to grab a fork will have to ask for the waiters permission. The waiter acts as the coordinator process since he knows the status of all the philosophers (processes) and the forks (resources) and can decide which request to grant and which request to refuse if it going to allow a deadlock to occur. Another solution is the Resource Hierarchy solution. It works by numbering the resources (forks) from 1 to 5. Each philosopher can start eating by requesting the lower-numbered fork before the higher-numbered one. If granted, he can continue to ask for the higher-numbered fork. When freeing the resources (forks), he will have to free the higher-numbered fork before the lower-numbered one allowing another philosopher who has already grabbed his lower-numbered fork to grab his higher-numbered fork and start eating. One very famous solution to that problem is to not let the philosopher eat unless his two neighboring philosophers are not eating. This is done by letting the philosopher check his right neighbor, if he is not eating, he goes and check his left neighbor, if he is not eating also, then he can start eating by grabbing the two forks. However, it is not that simple because his right neighbor could start eating while he is checking his left neighbor. This is done by using Mutual Exclusion locks (Monitors). Mutual Exclusion algorithms are used in distributed systems to prevent simultaneous use of common resources by using critical sections which are pieces of code that allow the process to access that shared resource without being interrupted by any other process or an event generated by the executing process itself. Monitors are used on the functions that change the Philosophers states so it guarantees that the state of the philosopher wont change while checking the state of the second on e. This solution is very similar to the solution which states that if the philosopher have been able to grab his right fork but could not grab his left fork, he should release the right fork since grabbing it without the left fork has no benefit. In fact, it affects the philosophers right neighbor since he cannot eat because his left fork is grabbed already (without any benefit) while his right fork can be free. In order for this solution to be useful, it is needed to assure that none of the philosophers are starving. This can be done by maintaining a counter for the maximum number of times that a philosopher has been prevented from eating so that a philosopher can be prevented from picking up a fork because his neighbor is starving. In this paper, we will go through different papers that propose different solutions with different characteristics for each one. The first solution was proposed by Chandy and Misra long time ago to let an arbitrary number of agents (philosophers) to be able to contend to an arbitrary number of resources (forks) using a completely distributed starvation-free algorithm. The second one solves the dining philosophers problem in the presence of malicious failures using a combination of stabilization and optimal crash failure locality. The third one solves the dining philosophers problem in the presence of faulty processes in the system with a crash locality 1 using partial synchrony. Chandy / Misra Solution: This solution was proposed in 1984 to support arbitrary number of processes (philosophers) to contend to arbitrary number of resources (forks); not necessarily two forks. The algorithm is totally distributed and requires no central authority after initialization like the solutions mentioned in the introduction part of this paper. Each fork has two states, dirty or clean. Initially, all forks are dirty. Whenever two philosophers try to contend for a fork, give it to the agency with the lower ID with a dirty state at the beginning. Whenever a philosopher wants a resource that is held by another one, he should send request messages to all the philosophers having the resources he needs. When a philosopher gets a request message from a contending one, he should give the fork to him if it is dirty, and keep the fork with him in case it is clean. Whenever a philosopher gives away a fork, he changes its state to be clean and frees the resource. When a philosopher uses a clean fork for eating, it becomes dirty. This solution has other benefits as well. It allows high degree of concurrency and can be used to solve large problems since there is no constraint on the number of processes or resources contended by them in the algorithm. The algorithm also solves the starvation problem by using the clean / dirty states for forks. It acts as a preference to give the fork to the most starved philosopher and delays the philosophers who have just eaten and are requesting the fork again. This algorithm is also called the Hygienic Dining Philosophers algorithm. It is considered one of the fundamental solutions to the dining philosophers problem. It is used as a basis for many other papers and researches to develop more resolution algorithms for the dining and drinking philosophers problem. Dining Philosophers that Tolerate Malicious Crashes: A Malicious Crash is a fault in a process due to a component or environmental failure that will lead to arbitrary behavior in that process by doing a finite number of arbitrary steps and then end all its operations without informing or alerting other processes in the system. The paper models malicious crashes by combining two types of failures, Halting Failures and Transient Failures. A Halting failure occurs when the failed process does not do anything due to the failure. A special case of this failure is the initially dead process where the failed process does not do anything throughout the whole operation of the system. A transient failure perturbs the system for a finite amount of time and then leaves the system in some arbitrary state. Stabilization algorithms are used to solve this type of failures since Stabilizing algorithms are able to start from any arbitrary incorrect state of the system, brings the system to a logically correct state, and makes it continue correct operati on thereafter. a non-malicious crash is called benign crash in this paper. It is assumed in the paper that the system could be asynchronous and though it is stated in other papers that the minimum crash locality that can be achieved in case of crashes in a dining philosophers system is 2 (the distance between the farthest process affected by the crashed process and the crashed process in 2). It is also mentioned that it is very difficult to identify a crashed process from a slow one in an asynchronous system. It is known only if the failure is a fail-stop (a type of Halting Failure where other processes know when that process failed). The algorithm works by introducing a priority between each pair of processes in the dining philosophers system. This is done by assigning a direction for the link between each pair of philosophers. This direction identifies the direct ancestors and descendants of each process in the system. The directed links are assigned in such a way that prevents having cycles in the graph (the graph is acyclic). A hungry process will eat only if its direct ancestors are not hungry (maintaining priorities in the progress condition of the algorithm). Also, when a hungry process is done eating, it changes its priority to become the descendant of all its neighbors by changing the directions of the links. A deadlock is not possible to occur in this case since the algorithm would make sure that the directed links do not form a cycle in the dependency graph. Having a dependency graph may violate the liveness property if having long chains of waiting processes and one of the waiting processes crashes. The liveness property can be violated also if the dependency graph contained a cycle at any point of time. To break the cycle, each process knows about the distance between itself and its farthest descendant. If at any point in time, and in any process, that value exceeded the diameter of the system (the number of processes in the system), then this process detects a cycle and will make itself the descendant of all its neighbors to break that cycle. It is assumed that the diameter of the system is known to all processes when the system starts its operation. Dining Philosophers with Crash Locality 1: Crash Locality is a quantity that refers to the maximum number of neighboring processes affected by a failure that occurred in the crashing process. Optimal crash locality would be 0 (no neighboring processes affected at all) in fully synchronized systems. It usually degrades to crash locality 2 when dealing with asynchronous systems. This algorithm proposes a solution with crash locality 1 (only one neighbor is affected by a process crash) using partial synchrony in the system. Partial synchrony is a mid-level of synchrony between full synchrony and asynchrony. Full synchrony means having all the processes executing the same line of code in the same time. Asynchrony means having no connection or relation of any type between the processes while execution. Partial synchrony means to have reliable channels between the processes without the guarantee of the exact concurrent execution for all the processes. The algorithm reaches its result at the end by having all the hungry processes in the system either eating or having a crashed process in its 1-neighborhood (the processes that are direct neighbor to that process). This is achieved by using the eventually perfect failure detector -P. The failure detector would act as a distributed module where each process has access only to its own local module where it can identify if it has crashed or not. On the other hand, the detector modules communicate with each other to let each process know about the processes which have crashes. The detector may make mistakes. It can suspect a correct process to have crashes (false-positive) or not suspect a crashing process (false-negative). However, after some point, the detector will converge (said to be well-founded) and provide correct information about crashes in the system. After convergence, the detector will remain well-founded thereafter. The algorithm works using the Skepticism concept. This means that the processes within the 1-neighborhood of the crashing process would be skipped (the process is called skeptical). Also, a skeptical process should not prevent its neighbor from eating if this neighbor is hungry and is not the crashing process. In other words, if we have a crashing process, its direct neighbors would be skeptical but the direct neighbors of its direct neighbors should not be affected by the processs crash by this algorithm since our main objective is to limit the crash locality to exactly 1 (only the direct neighbors of the crashing process would be affected by the crash). The algorithm is not a fixed simple list of steps to be executed. It defines a general method for limiting the crash locality to 1 by introducing a set of steps that would depend on the dining algorithm being transformed to support the crash locality condition. However, it uses the same general concept among all the algorithms. The algorithm assumes that each philosopher is in the state of eating, hungry, or thinking. Also, a philosopher wont be eating unless he becomes hungry first. Another thing is that the transition to the thinking state occurs only from the eating state. On the other hand, a philosopher wont prevent his neighbors from eating if he was in the thinking state. This means that if there is a crashing process, and its direct neighbors are being affected by that crash, implementing and insuring that those direct neighbors are in the thinking state wont prevent the other philosophers from eating and so the dining philosophers algorithm will continue its normal execution with only 1-neighborhood philosophers of the crashing philosopher affected by that crash. Comparison: Any dining philosopher solution should maintain the following 2 conditions: Safety: No neighboring philosophers could eat in the same time. No deadlock situation should occur between the philosophers. Liveness: every hungry philosopher will eventually eat (given that no hungry philosopher will eat forever). There are a lot of algorithms that have been introduced in this field. In the previous sections of the paper, we went through 3 different dining philosophers algorithms, Hygienic Algorithm, Dining Philosophers with Crash Locality 1, and Dining Philosophers that tolerate malicious crashes. Each one has its own assumptions and characteristics and so is applicable in some situations or systems that other algorithms are not. The Hygienic algorithm (Chandy / Misra solution) is one of the basic and fundamental solutions to the dining philosophers. Its main advantage is that it implements the prioritization by introducing a variable with 2 possible states for each fork; clean or dirty. This insures the liveness property and that no starvation would occur since the forks would be given to the most starved process in the system. On the other hand, this algorithm does not have any way of tolerating crashes in the system or at least limiting the circle of affected processes by a crash in the system. As a result to that, this algorithm cannot be used in a fault-tolerant system or any system that is due to crashes or failures. The second algorithm in this paper is the Dining Philosophers That Tolerate Malicious Crashes. This algorithm presents a new concept by assuming that the links between the neighboring philosophers are directed which would refer to having priorities between the different processes in the system and so avoid starvation. However, this algorithm adds a very important contribution to the regular dining philosophers algorithm by combining two concepts, Stabilization and Crash Locality. Stabilization in the algorithm works by having a crash in the system (a malicious failure as defined in the paper) and the diners algorithm would continue its execution without being affected by the crash. The crash locality in this algorithm is limited to 2. This means that maximum distance between the crashed process and the farthest affected process by that crash is 2. The algorithm works in asynchronous model of the system where no synchrony of any mean is existing between the processes in the system (every process will execute its code without knowledge about execution of every other process). The third algorithm in this paper is Dining Philosophers with Crash Locality 1. This algorithm uses Failure Detectors. A Failure Detector is a program that will eventually (after multiple runs) identify failures in the processes in the system and can inform all the other processes about the crashed process. By using this failure detector, the algorithm is able to identify the location of the crashed process and so can identify its direct neighbors. Assuming that each process is in the state of eating, thinking, or hungry, it forces the direct neighbors of the crashed process to be in the thinking state in order not to prevent their neighbors from eating and so the processes in the system will continue their execution perfectly. Note that as a part of any dining philosophers algorithm, a process cannot be in the thinking state unless it was in the eating state before. This transition is also maintained by the algorithm. By introducing some additional set of steps to the original dining philosophers algorithm, the new algorithm limits the crash locality to 1 using the previously mentioned mechanism. The additional set of steps added to do that is dependent upon the original algorithm being transformed. The paper provides transformation for 3 main dining philosophers algorithms: Asynchronous Doorway Algorithm, Hierarchical Resource Allocation Algorithm, and Hygienic Dining Philosophers Algorithm which is the first algorithm we talked about in this survey. The algorithm assumes that the system is supported by partial synchrony (not necessarily executing the same step in the same time, but there is a reliable communication channels between neighbors). Conclusion: As discussed in this paper, the dining and drinking philosophers problem is a very old and important problem in the distributed computing field. It was first introduced by Dijkstra and then used by many other researches as a general problem for illustrating mutual exclusion and resource sharing and allocation problem. A lot of algorithms have been introduced to resolve this problem with many options and assumptions which makes each proposed algorithm suitable for specific applications. In this paper, we have introduced the problem with some of the fundamental and very old solutions for it in the Introduction section. Then, we introduced 3 main algorithms for dining philosophers problem resolution. The first one is the Hygienic algorithm (Misra / Chandy solution). It is one of the first algorithms proposed for this problem. It has crash tolerance mechanism but provides priorities between processes and prevents starvation in the system. The second algorithm was a dining philosophers algorithm that tolerates malicious crashes. The algorithm works in an asynchronous system of processes and makes sure that the dining philosophers system wont crash even if a malicious crash hit a process in the system. This is done by having virtual directed links between neighboring processes to have sort of prioritization between the processes provided that the directed links should not form a cycle at all. The third algorithm was the dining philosophers with crash locality 1. This algorithm combines stabilization by allowing the system to have a crashed process while the system continues to operate correctly. Also, it provides a limit on the maximum number of processes affected by any crash in any process (Crash Locality) to be the direct neighbors of the crashing process only without letting the crash affect any other process in the system. At the end, we have combined them together into one section to list the advantages, disadvantages, assumptions, and best suitable application for each algorithm included in this paper in the comparison section.