Memory Organization

reposition Basics retention is the works rail dash yard for the computers mainframe. It is a temporary storage argona where the architectural plans and in counterfeitation being operated on by the mainframe essential re gradient. Memory storage is con posturered temporary beca practice the selective data and political programs lead re of import on that point only as long as the computer has electrical ply or is non reset. Before being shut down or reset, any selective information that has been changed should be saved to a some(prenominal) everlasting storage twist of round compositors case (usu tout ensembley a hard dish aerial) so it groundwork be reloaded into repositing again in the future. We often rec altogether retentivity beat in, for Random entre Memory.Main store is called get beca subprogram you do-nothing indiscriminately (and quickly) access any location in retrospection. When we talk about a computers retrospect, we usually mean the get in the transcription, meaning mainly the w atomic number 18housing disrupts or mental facultys that make up the primary active program and data storage apply by the processor. This is often conf utilize with the term storage, which should be apply when elevatering to things much(prenominal) as disk and tape drives (although some peck do consider them a form of retentiveness). 2Types of Memory To better perceive strong-arm retentiveness in a dust, it is necessary to call for where and how it fits into the organisation.Three principal(prenominal) display cases of physical retrospect used in flairrn PCs atomic calculate 18 read-only storage Read Only Memory drachma Dynamic Random admittance Memory SRAM Static RAM 2. 1read-only remembrance Read Only Memory, or read-only entrepot, is a token of depot that puke permanently or semipermanently hold data. It is called read-only because it is all impossible or difficult to write to. ROM is in addition often referred to as non-volatile entrepot because any data stored in ROM forget tarry, level if the power is turned pip. As such(prenominal), ROM is an ideal orchestrate to put the PCs startup instructionsthat is, the brushedw ar that blooms the remains.Note that ROM and RAM are not opposites, as some people shoot the breezem to believe. In fact, ROM is technically a subset of the brasss RAM. In other(a) words, a voice of the bodys Random Access Memory address space is mapped into wholeness or more ROM chips. This is necessary to contain the software that enables the PC to boot up otherwise, the proces- sor would rescue no program in holding to execute when it was powered on. For example, when a PC is turned on, the processor automatically jumps to address FFFF0h, expecting to find instructions to tell the processor what to do.This location is exactly 16 bytes from the end of the eldest metre of RAM space, and the end of the ROM. If this location was mapped int o regular repositing 1 chips, any data stored on that point would need disappeared when the power was turned off previously, and the processor would subsequently find no instructions to run the nigh time power was turned on. By placing a ROM chip at this address, a strategy startup program mickle be permanently loaded into the ROM and will be available either time the system is turned on. The mother carte du jour ROM normally contains four main programs, including the following in about systems POST Power-On Self Test.A series of political campaign ha positions that ensure the system comp angiotensin-converting enzyments are operating(a) properly. CMOS setup A menu-driven coating that allows the user to set sys- tem configuration parameters, options, security settings, and preferences. Bootstrap Loader The routine that archetypical of all s fundaments the floppy drive and hence the hard disk, looking for an operating system to load. BIOS Basic Input/Output Syst em. A series of doodad driver programs physical bodyed to present a trite interface to the introductory system hardware, e extraly hardware that essential be active during the boot process. Four diverse lawsuits of ROM chips are ROM. Read Only Memory PROM. Programmable ROM EPROM. Erasable PROM EEPROM. Electrically Erasable PROM, also called a brassy ROM No subject area which sign of ROM you use, the data stored in a ROM chip is non- volatile and will remain indefinitely unless(prenominal)(prenominal) intentionally erased or overwritten. 2. 1. 1PROM PROMs are a type of ROM that is blank when radical- do and must(prenominal) be programmed with whatever data you neediness 2. 1. 2EPROM One variation of the PROM that has been very popular is the EPROM. An EPROM is a PROM that is erasable. EPROM is erased by exposure to intense UV light. 2. 1. 3 EEPROM/Flash ROMA cuttinger type of ROM is the EEPROM, which stands for Electrically Erasable PROM. These chips are also called flash ROMs, and are spiritized by their capability to be erased and reprogrammed forthwith in the circuit board in which they are installed, with no picky equipment required. 2 2. 2 drachma Dynamic RAM is the type of remembrance chip used for more or less of the main repositing in a way of lifern PC. The main advantages of DRAM is that it is very dense, meaning you tummy pack a attracter of bits into a very small chip, and it is very inexpensive, which makes it affordable for large amounts of computer memory.The memory cells in a DRAM chip are tiny capacitors that harbour a deputation to indicate a bit. The problem with DRAM is that it is dynamic, and because of the design must be constantly polished or the electrical charges in the indivi duple memory capacitors will drain and the data will be lost. Refresh occurs when the system memory ascendance takes a tiny splinter and accesses all the rows of data in the memory chips. DRAMs use only cardinal transistor and capa citor pair per bit, which makes them very dense, crack cocaineing a tummy of memory capacity per chip than other types of memory. 2. 3 Cache MemorySRAMThere is some other distinctly different type of memory that is signifi put forwardtly faster than most types of DRAM. SRAM stands for Static RAM, which is so named because it does not need the periodic refresh pass judgment like DRAM (Dynamic RAM). Due to the design of SRAM, not only are refresh rates unnecessary, nevertheless SRAM is much faster than DRAM and is full able to keep pace with flairrn processors. SRAM memory is available in access times of 2ns or less, which means it can keep pace with processors discharge 500MHz or faster This is due to the SRAM design, which calls for a cluster of sextet transistors for individually bit of storage.The use of transistors barely no capacitors means that refresh rates are not necessary because there are no capacitors to lose their charges over time. As long as there is power, SRAM will remember what is stored. Compared to DRAM, SRAM is much faster, further also much lower in density and much more expensive. The lower density means that SRAM chips are physically large and store many less bits overall. The amply itemise of transistors and the clustered design means that SRAM chips are both physically larger and much more expensive to produce than DRAM chips.Even though SRAM is alike expensive for PC use as main memory, PC designers arouse found a way to use SRAM to dramatically alter PC slaying. Rather than spend the money for all RAM to be SRAM memory, which can run fast enough to match the CPU, it is much more hail-effective to design in a small amount of high-speed SRAM memory, called hoard memory. The cache runs at speeds close to or even equal to the processor, and is the memory from which the processor normally directly reads from and writes to. During read exercises, the data in the high-speed cache memory is resupplied from the lower-s peed main memory or DRAM in advance. 3Memory Packaging Memory is do from tiny semiconductor chips and must be packaged into something less fragile and tiny in rank to be integrated with the rest of the system Different types of memory paclages are ii-fold Inline Packages (DIPs) and Memory Modules Single Inline Memory Modules (SIMMs) Dual Inline Memory Modules (DIMMs) 3. 1DIPS around memory chips are packaged into small plastic or ceramic packages called dual inline packages or DIPs. A DIP is a rectangular package with rows of pins running along its ii longer edges These are the small black boxes you see on SIMMs, DIMMs or other larger packaging styles . 2SIMMs SIMMs are available in two flavors 30 pin and 72 pin. 30-pin SIMMs are the aged(a) specimen, and were popular on third and fourth generation motherboards. 72-pin SIMMs are used on fourth, fifth and sixth generation PCs. SIMMs are placed into special sockets on the motherboard created to hold them. The sockets are ad hocally designed to ensure that once inserted, the SIMM will be held in place tightly 3. 3DIMMs DIMMs are 168 pins in size, and provide memory 64 bits in width. They are a naturaler form factor and are becoming the de facto standard for new PCs they are not used on older motherboards motherboards.SIMMs drive contacts on either side of the circuit board but they are tied together. So a 30-pin SIMM has 30 contacts on each side of the circuit board, but each pair is machine-accessible. DIMMs however bring in different connections on each side of the circuit board 4Memory Banks Memory chips (DIPs, SIMMs, SIPPs, and DIMMs) are organized in banks on motherboards and memory card game. The banks usually correspond to the data bus capacity of the systems microprocessor. The number of bits for each bank can be made up of case-by-case chips, SIMMs, or DIMMs. 4 5Memory ReliabilityA part of the nature of memory is that it will inevitably fail. These failures are usually classified as tw o basic types hard fails and soft hallucinations. The most well understood are hard fails, in which the chip is working and then, due to some flaw, physical damage, or other event, becomes damaged and experiences a permanent failure. Fixing this type of failure normally requires replacement of some part of the memory hardware, such as the chip, SIMM, or DIMM. Hard error rates are cognise as HERs. The other more insidious type of failure is the soft error.A soft error is a nonpermanent failure that may never reoccur, or occur at infrequent intervals. (Soft fails are effectively fixed by powering the system off and back on. ) Soft error rates are known as SERs. There are basically three levels and techniques for blot tolerance used in panachern PCs Non- affinity proportion error correction code (Error Correcting Code) Non- mirror symmetry systems have no fault tolerance at all. The reason they are even used is because they have the lowest inherent cost. No spare memory is ne cessary as is the case with parity or ECC techniques. 6 space-reflection symmetryTne standard IBM set for the industry is that the memory chips in a bank of 9 each handle one bit of data octet bits per character plus one extra bit called the parity bit. As the eight individual bits in a byte are stored in memory, a parity genera- tor/ ensure, which is either part of the CPU or located in a special chip on the motherboard, evaluates the data bits by counting the number of 1s in the byte. If an even number of 1s is in the byte, the parity generator/checker creates a 1 and stores it as the ninth bit (parity bit) in the parity memory chip.That makes the total summate for all nine bits an left over(p) number. If the lord sum of the eight data bits is an odd number, the parity bit created is 0, belongings the 9-bit sum an odd number. The value of the parity bit is always chosen so that the sum of all nine bits (eight data bits plus one parity bit) is an odd number. The following ex amples may make it easier to understand entropy bit number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 data bit value10110011 Parity bit0 5 In this example, because the total number of data bits with a value of 1 is an odd number (5), the parity bit must have a value of 0 to ensure an odd sum for all nine bits.The following is other example Data bit number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Data bit value 00110011 Parity bit 1 In this example, because the total number of data bits with a value of 1 is an even number (4), the parity bit must have a value of 1 to create an odd sum for all nine bits. When the system reads memory back from storage, it checks the parity information. If a (9-bit) byte has an even number of bits with a parity bit value of 1, that byte must have an error. The system cannot tell which bit has changed, or if only a single bit has changed.If three bits changed, for example, the byte unbosom flags a parity-check error if two bits changed, however, the bad byte may pass unnoticed. The following examples show parity-check pass ons for three types of systems For the IBM PC PARITY CHECK x For the IBM XT PARITY CHECK x yyyyy (z) For the IBM AT and late model XT PARITY CHECK x yyyyy Where x is 1 or 2 1=Erroroccurre bearthemotherboard 2=Erroroccurredinanexpansionslot yyyyy represents a number from 00000 through with(predicate) FFFFF that indicates, in hexadecimal notation, the byte in which the error has occurred. Where (z) is (S) or (E ) S) = Parity error occurred in the system unit (E ) = Parity error occurred in the expansion chassis When a parity-check error is detected, the motherboard parity-checking cir- cuits generate a non-maskable interrupt (NMI), which halts processing and di- 6 verts the systems attention to the error. The NMI causes a routine in the ROM to be executed. The routine clears the screen and then displays a message in the upper-left corner of the screen. The message differs depending on the type of computer system. 7 ECC (Error Correcting Code) ECC goes a big st ep beyond dewy-eyed parity error detection.Rather than just detecting an error, ECC allows a single bit error to be corrected, which means the system can report on without interruption and without corrupting data. ECC as implemented in most PCs can only detect and not correct double-bit errors. Because studies have indicated that approximately 98 percent of memory errors are single- bit variety, the most commonly used type of ECC is one in which the accessory memory controller detects and corrects single-bit errors in an accessed data word (double-bit errors can be detected, but not corrected).This type of ECC is known as SEC-DED and requires an additional seven check bits over 32 bits in a 4-byte system and eight check bits in an 8-byte system. ECC in a 4-byte system obviously costs more than non-parity or parity, but in an 8-byte system, ECC and parity costs are equal. ECC entails the memory controller reason the check bits on a memory- write operation, performing a analyse b etween the read and calculated check- bits on a read operation and, if necessary, correcting bad bit(s).The additional ECC logic in the memory controller is not very significant in this age of inex- pensive, high-performance VLSI logic, but ECC actually affects memory perfor- mance on writes. This is because the operation must be timed to wait for the calculation of check bits and, when the system waits for corrected data, reads. On a partial-word write, the constitutional word must first be read, the touch on byte(s) rewritten, and then new check bits calculated. This turns partial-word write operations into slower read-modify writes. close memory errors are of a single-bit nature, which are correctable by ECC.Incorporating this fault-tolerant technique provides high system reliability and at raceant availability. An ECC- found system is a goodly choice for servers, workstations, or mission-critical applications in which the cost of a potential memory error outweighs the additi onal memory and system cost to correct it, along with ensuring that it does not detract from system reliability. 8 The System Logical Memory Layout The original PC had a total of 1M of addressable memory, and the top 384K of that was uncommunicative for use by the system.Placing this reserved space at the top (between 640K and 1024K quite of at the bottom, between 0K and 640K) led to what today is often called the conventional memory parapet. The constant pressures on system and peripheral manufacturers to maintain compatibility by never breaking from the original memory scheme of the first PC has resulted in 7 a system memory structure that is (to put it genially) a mess. Logical memory sections are presumptuousness below naturalized (Base) memory speed Memory arena (UMA) High Memory Area (HMA) panoptic memory (XMS) Expanded memory (obsolete) Video RAM memory (part of UMA) transcriber ROM and Special Purpose RAM (part of UMA) Motherboard ROM BIOS (part of UMA) 8. 1 Conventional (Base) Memory The original PC/XT-type system was designed to use 1M of memory workspace, sometimes called RAM (random access memory). This 1M of RAM is divided into some(prenominal) sections, some of which have special uses. res publica can read and write to the entire megabyte, but can manage the loading of programs only in the portion of RAM space called conventional memory, which was 512K at the time the first PC was introduced.The other 512K was reserved for use by the system, including the motherboard and arranger boards plugged into the system slots. After introducing the system, IBM decided that only 384K was needed for these reserved uses, and the company began marketing PCs with 640K of user memory. and then, 640K became the standard for memory that can be used by DOS for running programs, and is often termed the 640K memory barrier. The remaining memory later on 640K was reserved for use by the fine art boards, other adapters, and the motherboard ROM BI OS.This barrier largely affects 16-bit software such as DOS and Windows 3. 1, and is much less of a factor with 32-bit software and operating systems such as Windows 95/98, NT, and so on. 8. 2 Upper Memory Area (UMA) The term Upper Memory Area (UMA) describes the reserved 384K at the top of the first megabyte of system memory on a PC/XT and the first megabyte on an AT-type system. This memory has the addresses from A0000 through FFFFF. The way the 384K of upper memory is used breaks down as follows The first 128K after conventional memory is called pic RAM.It is re- served for use by motion-picture show adapters. When text and graphics are displayed onscreen, the electronic impulses that contain their images reside in this space. Video RAM is lot the address range from A0000-BFFFF. 8 The next 128K is reserved for the adapter BIOS that resides in read-only memory chips on some adapter boards plugged into the bus slots. Most VGA-compatible video adapters use the first 32K of this area for their onboard BIOS. The rest can be used by any other adapters installed. Many network adapters also use this area for special-purpose RAM called Shared Memory.Adapter ROM and special-purpose RAM is distribute the address range from C0000-DFFFF. The last 128K of memory is reserved for motherboard BIOS (the basic infix/output system, which is stored in read-only RAM chips or ROM). The POST (Power-On Self Test) and aid loader, which handles your system at bootup until the operating system takes over, also reside in this space. Most systems only use the last 64K (or less) of this space, leaving the first 64K or more free for remapping with memory managers. Some systems also include the CMOS Setup program in this area.The motherboard BIOS is allotted the address range from E0000-FFFFF. 8. 3 extended Memory The memory map on a system based on the 286 or higher(prenominal) processor can extend beyond the 1M boundary that exists when the processor is in real mode. On a 286 or 386SX system, the prolonged memory limit is 16M on a 386DX, 486, Pentium, Pentium MMX, or Pentium Pro system, the extended memory limit is 4G (4,096M). Systems based on the Pentium II processor have a limit of 64G (65,536M). For a system to address memory beyond the first megabyte, the processor must be in saved modethe native mode of 286 and higher processors.On a 286, only programs designed to run in protected mode can take advantage of extended memory. 386 and higher processors offer another mode, called virtual real mode, which enables extended memory to be, in effect, cut into 1M pieces (each its own real-mode session). Virtual real mode also allows for several of these sessions to be running simultaneously in protected areas of memory. The extended memory spec (XMS) was unquestionable in 1987 by Mi- crosoft, Intel, AST Corp. , and Lotus Development to specify how programs would use extended memory.The XMS specification functions on systems based on the 286 or higher and a llows real-mode programs (those designed to run in DOS) to use extended memory and another block of memory usually out of the reach of DOS. Before XMS, there was no way to ensure cooperation between programs that switched the processor into protected mode and used extended memory. There was also no way for one program to know what another had been doing with the extended memory because none of them could see that memory while in real mode. HIMEM.SYS becomes an arbitrator of sorts that first grabs all the extended memory for itself and then doles it out to programs that know the XMS protocols. In this manner, several programs that use XMS memory can operate together under DOS on the akin system, switching the pro- cessor into 9 and out of protected mode to access the memory. Extended memory can be made to align to the XMS specification by installing a de- vice driver in the CONFIG. SYS file. The most common XMS driver is HIMEM. SYS, which is included with Windows 3. x and later ver sions of DOS, get-go with 4. and up. 8. 4 High Memory Area (HMA) The High Memory Area (HMA) is an area of memory 16 bytes short of 64K in size, starting at the beginning of the first megabyte of extended memory. It can be used to load device drivers and memory-resident programs to free up conventional memory for use by real-mode programs. Only one device driver or memory-resident program can be loaded into HMA at one time, no matter what its size. Originally, this could be any program, but Microsoft decided that DOS could get there first, and built capability into DOS 5 and newer versions.The HMA area is extremely Copernican to those who use DOS 5 or higher because these DOS versions can move their own kernel (about 45K of program instructions) into this area. This is accomplished simply by first loading an XMS driver (such as HIMEM. SYS) and adding the line DOS= proud to your CONFIG. SYS file. Taking advantage of this DOS capability frees another 45K or so of conventional memory for use by real-mode programs by essentially mov- ing 45K of program code into the first surgical incision of extended memory.Although this memory was supposed to be accessible in protected mode only, it turns out that a forsake in the design of the original 286 (which, fortunately, has been propagated forward to the more novel processors as a feature) accidentally al- lows access to most of the first segment of extended memory while still in real mode. The use of the HMA is controlled by the HIMEM. SYS or equivalent driver. The origins of this memory usage are interesting because they are based on a bug in the original 286 processor carried forward through even the Pentium II. 8. 5 Expanded MemorySome older programs can use a type of memory called Expanded Memory Spec- ification or EMS memory. unalike conventional (the first megabyte) or extended (the cooperate through 16th or 4,096th megabytes) memory, expanded memory is not directly addressable by the processor. kind of, it c an only be accessed through a 64K windowpane and small 16K pages established in the UMA. Expanded memory is a segment or bank-switching scheme in which a custom memory adapter has a large number of 64K segments onboard, com- bined with special switching and mapping hardware. The system uses a free segment in the UMA as the fireside address for the EMS board.After this 64K is fill with data, the board rotates the filled segment out and a new, empty segment appears to take its place. In this fashion, you have a board that can keep on rotating in new segments to be filled with data. Because only one segment can be seen or oper- ated on at one time, EMS is very inefficient for program code and is normally 10 only used for data. 9Video Memory The video memory is such an important component of the video card, and indirectly the entire PC, that several new memory technologies have been created specifically for it.The goal to improve the speed with which information can be pumped into and out of the video memory, to keep system performance high as the video system tries to do more and more. Various memory technologies now being used on video card are explained below. 9. 1 Standard (Fast Page Mode) DRAM The oldest engine room used in video card memory, fast page mode (FPM) memory is now considered standard DRAM as it has the fewest performanceenhancing capabilities of the different types of memory on the market. FPM DRAM is a technology used primarily for main system memories (even there, it is now considered a poor performer) and is not genuinely ell-suited for highperformance video applications. 11 FPM is the least expensive type of memory available for video, and is used today mostly on low-end or generic cards (as well as older cards of course). For many applications they can be quite satisfactory however, they reach their limits quickly when trying to use high resolution modes, especially in true color. The limitations of standard DRAM are due to two primary e ffects it is single ported (which means it can only do one access at a time) and it runs at a relatively low speed and access width. 9. 2 Extended Data Out (capital of Japan) DRAMEDO DRAM is the same as standard FPM DRAM except for a slight modification in the access rung that gives it a small performance boost. With EDO DRAM, one read to memory can begin before the last one has completely stainless this yields a raw speed improvement of between 5 and 20 percent, depending on whom you ask. Originally used only for main system memory, EDO DRAM is becoming more popular on video cards because it provides slightly improved performance over standard DRAM at the same cost. (At one time EDO was more expensive than FPM but due to supply and demand effects now, EDO is actually the same cost or lower).EDO is still, however, a low-cost and low-performance solution compared to other types of video memory, and is not used on high-end cards. 9. 3 Video RAM (VRAM) The traditional, standard DRAM used for video cards typically does not have enough bandwidth to handle the demands of running a card at high resolution and color depths, with acceptable refresh rates. The main reason wherefore is the two competing access factors for the video memory the processor writing new information to the memory, and the RAMDAC reading it many times per flash in order to send video signals to the monitor.To address this fundamental limitation, a new type of memory was created called video RAM or VRAM. As the name implies, this memory is specifically tailored for use in video systems. The fundamental deflexion between VRAM and standard DRAM is that VRAM is dual-ported. This means that it has two access paths, and can be written to and read from simultaneously. The advantages of this are of course enormous given what the video card does many times per second a new screen image is calculated and written to the memory, and many times per second this memory is read and sent to the monitor.Dual - porting allows these operations to occur without bumping into each other. VRAM provides advantageously more bandwidth than either standard DRAM or EDO DRAM double in many cases. It is more suited for use in systems requiring high resolution and color depth displays. The only reason that it hasnt replaced standard DRAM entirely is of course cost. VRAM is more complex and requires more silicon per bit than standard DRAM, which makes it cost more. 12 9. 4Window RAM (WRAM)Window RAM or WRAM is a modification of regular VRAM that both improves performance and reduces cost on a bit-for-bit basis. Designed specifically for use in graphics cards, WRAM is also dual-ported but has about 25% more bandwidth than VRAM, and also incorporates additional features to allow for higher performance memory transfers for commonly used in writing(p) operations such as text drawing and block fills. Furthermore, WRAM is less expensive than VRAM to manufacture (although still more expensive than DRAM). 9 . 5 con actual Graphics RAM (SGRAM)A relatively newer RAM technology, Synchronous Graphics RAM or SGRAM tackles the poor performance of regular DRAM by increase greatly the speed at which memory transfers take place. SGRAM also incorporates specific per- formance enhancing features designed to work with acceleration features built into video cards, to greatly improve overall video processing speed. SGRAM is still single-ported, unlike VRAM or WRAM, but offers performance that is much closer to VRAM than DRAM due to its advanced design. 10 Flash Memory DevicesFlash memory has been around for several years as a main or an auxiliary storage medium for notebook computer computers. However, the rise of devices such as digital cameras and MP3 players and the presence of USB ports on practically all novel systems have transformed this technology from a ecological niche product into a mainstream must-have storage technology. Flash memory is a type of nonvolatile memory that is divided in to blocks rather than bytes, as with normal RAM memory modules. Flash memory, which also is used in most recent computers for BIOS chips, is changed by a process known as Fowler-Nordheim tunneling.This process removes the charge from the floating gate associated with each memory cell. Flash memory then must be erased before it can be charged with new data. The speed, low reprogramming current requirements, and compact size of recent flash memory devices have made flash memory a perfect counterpart for portable devices such as notebook computers and digital cameras, which often refer to flash memory devices as so-called digital film. Unlike real film, digital film can be erased and reshot.Ultra-compact, USB-based keychain drives that use flash memory are replacing both traditional floppy drives and naught/SuperDisk drives for transporting data between systems. Diiferent types of flash memory devices are expained below. 10. 1Compact Flash CompactFlash was developed by SanDisk Corpor ation in 1994 and uses ATA architecture to emulate a disk drive a CompactFlash device attached to a com- 13 puter has a disk drive letter just like your other drives. subsequent types of flash memory also use ATA architecture, either implemented in the device itself or in its controller. 0. 2MultiMedia Card The MultiMediaCard (MMC) was codeveloped by SanDisk and Infineon Tech- nologies AG (formerly southward AG) in November 1997 for use with smart phones, MP3 players, digital cameras, and camcorders. The MMC uses a simple 7-pin concomitant interface to devices and contains low-voltage flash memory. 10. 3Secure Digital (SD) A SecureDigital (SD) storage device is about the same size as MMC , but its a more sophisticated product. SD, which was codeveloped by Toshiba, Matsushita Electric (Panasonic), and SanDisk in 1999, gets its name from two special features.The first is encrypted storage of data for additional security, meeting current and future Secure Digital Music Initiative (S DMI) standards for portable devices. The second is a mechanical write-protection switch. 10. 4Pen Drive As an alternative to floppy and postcode/SuperDisk-class removable-media drives, USB-based flash memory devices are rapidly becoming the preferred way to move data between systems. The first successful drive of this type Treks ThumbDrivewas introduced in 2000 and has spawned many imitators, in- cluding many that incorporate a keychain or pocket clip to emphasize their portability.Unlike other types of flash memory, USB keychain drives dont require a separate card reader they can be plugged in to any USB port or hub. Al- though a driver is usually required for Windows 98 and Windows 98SE, most USB keychain drives can be read immediately by newer versions of Windows, particularly Windows XP. As with other types of flash memory, USB keychain drives are assigned a drive letter when connected to the computer. Most have capacities ranging from 128MB to 1GB, with some capacities as hi gh as 2GB or more.However, typical read/write performance of USB 1. 1-compatible drives is about 1MBps. Hi-Speed USB keychain drives are much faster, providing read speeds ranging from 5MBps to 15MBps and write speeds ranging from 5MBps to 13MBps. 11Advanced Memory Technologies 11. 1RDRAM RDRAM is a proprietary technology made by Rambus Inc. for use exclusively in certain Intel compatible motherboards 14 RDRAM stands for Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory. It can access data anyplace on the chip It requires power to hold its data and it transfers data in two ways per clock signal.However, it uses a smaller pathway, or system bus, to send information. The Rambus system bus is 16-bits wide. Rambus transfers data at 800 megahertz (MHz) and faster. Rambus is the more expensive type of memory since its proprietary, royalty costs that manufacturers must pay to produce it tend to result in higher retail prices. Additionally, Rambus compatible motherboards require that all of their RAM sl ots be occupied. Traditionally, a computer may contain anyplace from one to four ram slots. If a slot is unoccupied, the system still operates.Rambus requires that either a Rambus memory module or a kind of place holder known as a continuity module be in place to complete the memory path to the bus. 11. 2 DDR SDRAM (DDR) Double data rate (DDR) SDRAM memory is a JEDEC-created standard that is an evolutionary upgrade of standard SDRAM in which data is transferred twice as quickly. Instead of doubling the actual clock rate, DDR memory achieves the doubling in performance by transferring twice per transfer cycle once at the stellar(a) (falling) edge and once at the trailing (rising) edge of the cycle.This effectively double the transfer rate, even though the same overall clock and quantify signals are used. Since its inception, manufacturers have release new and faster versions of DDR. These are based on the use of prefetch buffers that access not only the memory, or dataword, pass o n by the processor but also the datawords adjacent to it on the chip. Thus DDR2 fetches four datawords per memory access, double the amount of DDR. DDR3, a more recent update, obtains eight datawords per access. 15