Perceptions of Anime in the West

Perceptions of gum gum gum gum anime in the WestCHAPTER 1Definition contrary words or frontiers apply in this dissertation qualification non be sporting for those who be non familiar with the anime community so I depart briefly explain any(prenominal) of the essential terms which will be in the text.1.1.1 gum animeAnime pronounced ah-ne-whitethorn is an abbreviation of the word animateness. It is used to refer all bread and butter, just it turns divulge that outside of lacquer it has been used to refer to all life-time desexualise in Japan (Napier, 2001). Over the age Nipponese life hi bilgewater has developed a variety of literary genre and caters to consumers of all eons. These animations argon not simply cartoons aimed to entertain children but to a fault develop more(prenominal) good themes consisting of contend, death or controversy (G.Hu, 2010). Anime when viewed shows very healthy and easy indications of its Nipponese roots (Napier, 2001).1.1. 2 MangaManga pronounced mahn-ga with a hard g fundamentally content comics in Nipponese. Manga git be recognized by the stylize ardeucerk budding from old Japanese art. Regular valet de chambrega chapters would be in the same physical clay of a comic check and be generate manga is spell in Japanese, the comic track records be read from right to left inverse to that of western comic books (Brenner, 2007).1.1.3 OtakuOkada Toshio calls Otakus people with a highly evolved sense of sight(LaMarre, 2009). Otakus are menti aced by Azuma (2001) in her book (originally in Japanese, by and by translated by Jonathan E. Abel) describing them as individuals who in majority are male in gender, and generally between the age of 18 to 40. Otakus consume, produce and collect Japanese manga and anime obsessively. Their hobby extends to caramel brown merc consecrateise of the anime or manga they watch. Otakus had increased in such(prenominal) a great exit over the divisions that Azuma (2001) in her book characters that this has puzzle a agriculture in Japan and this is not however check to Japan but a affectionately regularised popular culture well-nigh the globe.1.1.4 CosplayAs anime took the orb by storm Cosplay followed (Poulos, 2006). Poulos (2006) explained in his book that Cosplay is short for costume and play a hobby practiced by those who are yellowish browns of anime. The main implication of cosplaying is to dress up as a subject either from an anime or a manga they interchangeable and pith a group of people with the same interests and pose for taking pictures besides. Cosplaying is nearly associated with the Japanese community who base their Cosplay on anime and manga.1.1.5 Mecha Mecha is short for machinelike and in the context of Japanese popular culture, Mecha is one of the more genres in anime and manga (e.g. Gundam). Anything from an electric s wearr to a Brobdingnagian mechanical zombi with a pilot inside or even if its extern ally moldled, is mecha. (Poitras, 2001, p. 35)1.1.6 Fansubs broadly speaking if a fan makes sub epithets for a foreign film or programs it is referred to as a fansub. While looking at the term in a narrower definition it limits the practice to fan subtitling of anime (Leonard, 2005). They would often be subtitled by fans who watch the serial and and then uploaded to the internet thus qualification it operable for everyone and an anime having no translated subtitles and is in its original form would be identified as raws.1.1.7 ForumForums are interactive discussion areas in real time on the internet. The word forums is used in its plural form because areas of it are divided into several fibers. The reason its often compared to a bulletin board is that you stop post content on forums like using thumbtacks on billboards. This process on forums is called posting (Summey, Dawson, 2006). Forums are in this case used by fans that are members of this specific internet land site and share their opinions, talk close popular animes or the ones that was released in the past. They digest daily updates and provide associates to the latest and popular manga or anime. Members seat create a profile with personal information and thus consecrate a more personal interaction with users with the same interests, comment on their topics or create new topics (Schodt, 2007).Anime and mangaBefore proceeding foregoing it is to a fault important to establish the union between anime and manga. They both(prenominal) guard a rich and evident, visual point telling. Both knowledge base of anime and manga inspire one an an opposite(prenominal)(prenominal) and often create titles related to to one another (Brenner, 2007). The connection of anime and manga is much closer to that then that between the Statesn comic books and lively cartoons. Al roughly all animes including T.V series that are visionary on diametric channels or those available on dvds, Original Video Animat ions (OVA) and theatrical features are mostly ground on the manga that is published (Patten, 2004).1.1.9 Sh?nen/Sh?joSh?nen and Sh?jo both are terms used for anime and manga for either the male gender or the female. Sh?nen can be used for those animes or mangas tar recovered to struggleds teenage boys. For example most Sh?nen mangas make by Osamu Tezuka were dour and in roughly places he drew scenes of cannibalism. On the other pile Sh?jo the term used for those anime or manga targeted towards younger girls would usually yield feminine traits in them. at that place are as well terms implied on older men and women. Seinen is used for men while Josei is used for women (Power, 2009).1.3 flat coat of Anime nonpareil of the first Japanese animations or anime was k instanter to hire been screened in 1917. All the animes do during this period of time were make with same animation techniques that were used by the rest of the world. Stories were mostly fairytales of both western an d Japanese origin mainly because artists were confine from producing animes with any hint of propaganda and other sensitive productions (Poitras, 2001, p. 16). According to Hu (2010), Japanese animation or anime significantly evolved during the end of World War II.Drazen (2003) states in his book that animation genres soon later on were controversial, depicting stories that would show hardships that people came across during the war. champion example is an anime by Isao Takahata called Grave of the fireflies, a story ground on two children who starved to death near the end of the war. The war do an impact on the initial genre and depicted war in the animations, and any(prenominal) of the changes were so drastic, to the extent that they would either be rough(predicate) fictional fightings in Japan or a battle with connection to footing approximatelytimes whitethornbe in a whole other universe but humans being one of the species in the stories (Drazen, 2003). later the 1940s even most of the domestic films were animated films based on mangas. In the 1950s anime started to evolve by adaptation which started with Toei Animation. Toei animation is a historied animation studio owned by Toei Co. Ltd and its provide established in Tokyo, Japan. They did not stick to the genre of military and battle for long, it was then in the mid-sixties when anime started to generate a vast popularity and various new genre were also introduced. A soma of renowned titles came to uprise which catered to a large variety of age groups. virtually famous titles during that time mentioned by Patten (2004, p. 76) are Lupin III, Speed racer and Yamato which are run on some(prenominal) channels even now (these titles are mentioned because they became well cognize in the States simultaneously).Another anime mentioned by Drazen (2003) which made its historic debut was The Mighty Atom murderend known as Astroboy. This anime character was considered the Mic profound Mouse of Japan, his do was atom but it was locally pronounced atomu. Though the 1970s were not very productive, they did make some good animes in the genre of Mecha. Amongst them one was Gatchaman (later changed to G-force when it was windy in America). Another anime premiered during this period was Gundam which over a sort out came under the genre of mecha this manga was new as it contained a lot newer elements, some of which included climatic robot battles or robots combing to form another machine (Poitras, 2001, p. 20).During the 1980s, was the time when anime bloomed into the world, which was known as the granden historic period of Anime. Famous Animes came to surface, which are considered to be some of the best animes of all time. There are a number of famous animes that could be mentioned but some of the more famous ones are Robotech. Patten (2004, p. 76) mentions in his book that the creators of Robotech Carl Macek and Jerry Beck of summent gold USA and Tatsunoko Production Co., Ltd of Japan played a spacious role in not only qualification a boffo anime but also helped in the development of an even large American auditory modality. Famous animes such as Akira also played a key role in elevating anime in the world, with higher standards of storytelling and animation. This anime as Napier (2001) writes, had identity, structure, apocalypse a very good combination and these key ingredients enabled it to become number one at the box office in Japan. In position the anime also beat the sci-fi hit principal Wars Return of the Jedi during the time.Later on in 1995, the anime Ghost in the shell was released and was called the true cyberpunk film. This anime was given full committedness as plans were to air on the big screen after completion. Released by the same studio as Akira, this helped maintain the companys reputation as well. In 1997 when Pokemon was released, it spread to the western states. Pokemon dominated the TV channels during the earlier y ears of the 21st century. Pokemon changed its phone many time over the years and also upgradeed japans second largest domestic box office for an animated film after the release of the new title Pokemon The Movie Mew Vs. Mew-two. In the later years many other famous titles leaved such as all-inclusive metal Alchemist which became a fan favorite during its time. As well as other animated films, Princess Mononoke being one of them, is an adaptation of an old Japanese folk tale sullen into an anime. Princess Mononoke made a huge impact in both Japan and America. This also motivate actress Minnie Driver and sham Gillian Anderson to voice for characters in the English dubbing. Over the past years, anime has come uped radically, demonstrate a very bright future for Japanese animation in the new century ahead as it creates a haven everywhere for its fans (Boyd Nishimura, 2004).1.4 Impact of Japanese AnimationJapanese animation has left a huge impact on those who have been exposed to it. Many agree with the fact that anime has affected them in a flair which motivated them to change themselves. Some changes may include people taking up Japanese as a second language, take a proclivity to the Japanese cuisine, exploring a different culture and also meeting different people. Napier (2001) in her book looks at Japanese animation and how it has affected the west, America in particular. With the exposure of Japanese animation into America, in that respect have been huge numbers of groups that have emerged. Japanese animations as mentioned before have a vast genre, which enables it to cater to a larger audience. Although Japanese Animations may have left some positive impacts on fans in America, some trust otherwise. Jenkins (1992) mentions in his book about media fans and quotes Fan is derived of the word Fanatic, which has its roots in the Latin word fanaticus.The word fanaticus as Jenkins (1992) wrote in his book was referring to the meaning off or belonging to the temple, a temple servant, a devotee. This be given to many negative implication of the word fan. The main message which Jenkins cute to put through was contradicting Napier (2001) point of view. People were getting too absorbed. They guess fans often become anti-social and absorbed. He also concluded that it sometimes may not be the case as some media fans that he refers to in his book as Textual poachers are fans who look at distinct dimensions and are often helpful in giving intellectual food back to producers.There have also been many speculations whether Japanese animations have stolen ideas from America or not, some assumptions were made by viewing the themes of Japanese animations (Napier 2001). There may be some minor similarities or influence of Hollywood in Japanese anime, but if one views any Japanese animation it can easily be concluded that this not true. Japanese animations are very distinct and have strong Japanese elements such as, mannerism of characters, the narrative structure and social values. Making it irrelevant to deliberate anime or Japanese animations may be a stolen form (Napier, 2001).CHAPTER 22.1 Anime in AmericaDuring the 1940s anime was more focused towards younger audience, but thats what artists claimed, some of these were censored and often restricted because of propaganda. An example was like the anime Momotaro no Umiwashi released in 1943. Endearing animals were tenanted in battle with fleets of battle ships with Americans, reason for this being restricted in some places was because this was a sensitive issue after the Pearl obtain incident. The biggest indication that this was a propagandistic work was because this was funded by the Ministry of Navy. Such animations evidently did not help gain viewing audience on the other hand, progress was made with the animation techniques. (Poitras, 2001).In the 1950s, anime managed to recover and prosper due(p) to the fact that is was able to obtain capital and re incep tions easily. It was then in the 1960s when anime as we know these days started to be released to the audience. One of the most famous manga artists Osumu Tezuka founded the studio Mishi Productions. They released their first animated title Aru Machikadono no Mongatari (Translated The story of a Street Corner). ). Due to the advancement and the increase of television viewers the potential market of anime increased. It was in 1963 when Mishi Productions began airing its first TV anime Tetsuwan Atom and soon after it was broadcasted by NBC in America. It was redubbed and its title was changed to a more localized name which later on turned world famous AstroBoy (Poitras, 2001).Osamu Tezukas famous series Astro boy was released to the American audience round the same time as its introduction to its Japanese viewers (Clements McCarthy, 2006). Ladd Deneroff (2009) mentioned in their book, the term Anime Tsunami which fits what happened during these years of animes rise in America. alo ng with some other titles such as voltron and speed Racer. Anime started to emerge on an even larger scale during the period when Robotech was aired which was around the 1980s (Patten, 2004). Some may even say it was a stepping play off for anime in the Western market. It started off around the year of 1985 when it was aired as a TV series by symmetry lucky and ending up to be a huge success, they released more episodes with a total of 65 episodes (Clements McCarth, 2006). During this time anime was well on its way to being a huge part of the marketing decisions being made by the U.S, reason being the serious number of return of fans. Some video store chains were known to supply redubbed stochastic variables of anime because of the increase number of viewers (Poitras, 2001).DemographicsAnime has catered to a diverse range of age groups. From 1963 to 1968 famous animes such as Astro boy and Speed Racer were genre of anime clearly targeted towards a younger audience, that was al ongside the famous American made cartoon Transformers. The development of anime as an industry and as a fandom has been extraordinary, but it hasnt been smooth sailing. San Diegos Comic Con which was first held in 1970 starting off with just 300 people and in 2004 the number of people recorded were between 75,000 to 87,000. This goes to show the ever increasing fandom for anime (Brown, 2008). Susan J. Napier (2001) writes in her book that amongst the places in America that gave a surprise was an anime club in the University of Texas which had about 300 members. Not all the members were students, majority of the members were from outside the university and only 39.7 percent of those members were students. Austin, Texas was known for its high-tech industry and also for the majority of the locals who were pursue in computer programming. Thus the majority of the fans were engaged in anime very naturally because of their jobs. New York was not to farther off, the Big Apple was known to have a large number of respondents as well.The platform anime is viewed on has changed drastically through the years by both technological and economical influences. Amongst the mediums it was television that started things off in the earlier years around the 1960s. In the later years as technology progressed and the arrival of home video players and Video Cassette Recorders (VCR) enabled producers to reach a whole new audience. Before these advancements the only mediums anime could be viewed on were theaters. It was then in the 1990s when the use of Satellite/cable was seemly more common. This was not only a way to reach a bigger audience but also cost effective for the studios which aired the shows, as only one copy of the show was required for it to be aired (Clements and McCarthy, 2006).During these years as the growth of anime had been phenomenal, so had the growth of fans. Conventions were taking place all over America, universities being the main locations for the events. more(prenominal) and more fans take on to more channels on television consecrated to anime. Adult Swim being one of those channels which aired some famous animes like, Schinchiro Watanabes Cowboy Bebop or Masashi Ikedas Inuyasha (Clements and McCarthy, 2006).The most effective source of anime which had a major role in the growth in anime fandom was The Internet. The internet allowed fans to have access to anime at their convenience, only a click away (Napier, 2001). Websites such as animetake ( http//www.animetake.com ) are regular(prenominal) websites which have almost everything an anime fan needs, from free anime fan subbed episodes to forums where they can converse with other anime fans.There were some problems which came to surface which concerned legal issues. An example is of subgroups, Brown (2001) mentioned in his book about anime being translated by anime fans for anime fans. This started off mainly because some genres that were favored by a minority and not subbed becau se they were not popular, mainly Sh?jo (Genre aimed at teenage girls). Later on as many others started to fansub famous animes, the produces took this on as an advantage to see how the anime will fair in the American market. As this became a hot topic and discussions of the ethics of making fansubs were brought into question there were still those who may have wanted to profit from this, but there was a majority in groups of fansubbers who made clear their principle of not profiting from these copyright violation and making it available for fans at the same cost (Brown, 2001).There were often assumptions about fans being too absorbed into anime. Brown(2001) writes about people who make fansubs for other anime fans and also mentioning a couple who owned Tomodachi Anime concourse based in America which is now obsolete, losting an estimate of 10,000 $ pursuing their passion. Does this make them fans or Fanatics? Jenkins (1992) who writes in his book about fans and questioning whether they are fans or fanatics? As some of these individuals practically lock themselves up in their cellar and get out of sync with reality or become socially maladjusted.2.2 Globalization and cultureA survey conducted by Held and McGrew (2000 3) declared that no singe universally accepted definition of globalisation exists. Kearney (1995) says it is social dealings that form a connection with other areas across the world which cause changes in local areas because of the events taking place elsewhere and vice versa. Steger (2010) writes that globalisation has been traced back in history but was only until recently the reality realize the process of globalization. Throughout the years many definitions have been brought forward. One of them by Giddens (1990) delimitate globalization as As the intensification of the world-wide social relation, which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa (1990, p. 64)Th ere are Scholars who believe consequences from globalization are complex forms of interaction and interdependency (Rantanen, 2005). Rantanen (2005) wrote in his book saying Thompson (1995) focused more on media and culture and also had similar views as Giddens (1990). Thompson (1995) mentioned Globalizationrefers to the growing interconnections of different parts of the world, a process which gives rise to complex forms of interaction and interdependencies (1995, p. 149). irrigate (1995) and Robertson (1992) were amongst those who would stress that globalization was imaged through the consciousness, which in other words meant people would experience globalization through their own awareness instead of social relations. Waters (1995) states that globalization is a social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding (1995, p. 3).Rantanen (2005) writes in his book that glob alization jibe to theorists is not possible without Media and communication. Along with the progression of globalization the lives of many in Asia and North America have enhanced. Despite the assumptions by media theorists and scholars, universally there is no concrete explanation to define globalization. To conclude the term globalization, this term does not have any solid foundation, because it could mean otherwise depending on the environment. On the other had there are those who are skeptics like Hirst and Thompson (1999) who in their book write about how the possibilities of controlling world(prenominal) economy is hopeless.2.2.1 Hetrogenization/ homogenizationMany Scholars conclude that globalization may result either to heterogenization or homogenization. Mooney and Evans (2007) write in their book about homogenization, saying it basically means things becoming one. There are many environments that could be effected such as political, cultural practices, languages, consumer products, ideologies, media, and all forms of entertainment. There are many mediums and sources which made this possible, internet being one of the most effective. Many scholars who defined globalization would sometimes imply homogenization. Amongst those scholars one was Albrow (1990). In his work he came to the culmination that the whole population of the world is combine as one long society. Globalization Refers to all those processes by which the people of the world are incorporated into a single world society, global society (Albrow, 1990, p 45). Although Albrow (1990) defined globalization as being homogenized, but there are theorists who contend his views.Lull (2000, p 233) differs that globalization would lead to heterogenization. He believes that no emergence what medium it may be, even if its modern technology, with its efficiency to reach a plurality audience, it in no way has influenced the population into becoming a single community and it never will (Rantanen, 2 005). Rantanen (2005) mentions in his book, people amongst those who knock heterogenization often object to the strength that is being given to the general human race disregarding the global medias economic power. Neglecting that the large media firms location is in the U.S. and last ignoring the fact that there is discrepancy in portions of the audiences access to the media.2.3 Cultural ImperialismAnheier and Isar (2007) consider that cultural imperialism is spread through powerful, influential countries that have a strong culture. Anheier and Isar (2007) refer to these areas as core of the world culture systems and then those countries that are poor and are less developed at long last end up absorbing from those that are core of the world culture system. Cultural imperialism is categorize as being homogeneous in the theory brought forward by the writers about cultural imperialism assumes this process as homogeneous. Reason being the mass audience who are exposed to these cul tures accept and absorb the other culture of other countries which are mentioned in the book as the core of the world cultural system almost instinctively (Anheier and Isar, 2007). In support, Fejes (1981) assessment in which he, after evaluation of a specific area turned to the issue of media imperialism and its effects on cultures, saying it causes change to the terce world countries cultures. From what Fejes (1981) mentioned, we can gather that the media worldwide which are owned by the dominant countries control what the audiences watch. All Shows, News, Advertisements aired by those media groups who dominate, drastically alters most cultural ideals of the third world countries by the output which is hugely generic to the dominant, may it be superiority economically (Tomlinson, 2001) or, as Anheier and Isar(2007) mentioned , those who are core of the Cultural system. Hesmondhalgh and Toynbee (2008) write in their book about the WTO (World Trade Organization) Treaty and taking o ut one of the 28 placements from 1994 which was TRIPS (Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights Agreement). Some of the countries that were members had to eventually change laws or practices as it was necessary to follow the rules or principles of the organization. The agreement of TRIPS state these steps as necessary for artists in countries who wish to protect their work or their creativity from misuse. In compliance with TRIPS, some countries may have to make major changes in some of their countries polices. Hesmondhalgh and Toynbee (2008) state these developments can be taken as imperialism in the form of culture.However, Sparks (2007) debates aside from the fact that cultural imperialism is used for academic purposes but when it comes to politics, there are problems that arise. Pendakaur (1990, p 167) wrote about a group of workers and some small capitalists who had the aim to gain the national control of the Canadian cinema. On the other hand there were the emin ent capitalists who were the veritable owners of the national theatre chains. They wanted to maintain their current standings and keep in control of their current position (Sparks, 2007). What Pendakaur explains what Sparks mentions in his book about those who are dominant. Though these dominant entities might want to gain control, the majority would desire to maintain the current environment as it is (Sparks, 2007). accordingly there is also the term reverse flow which Barker (1997) mentions in his book. Among the examples were about reggae music, ethnic food and clothing the acceptance of other cultures in the western countries and making an impact on their culture (Barker, 1997).Chapter 3 character StudyTo evaluate how anime or Japanese animations were perceived by the west specifically America we look at the Anime Robotech which in 1984 was called Macross. the Robotech phenomenon is a curious hybrid of Japanese animation and American ambition(Clements and McCarthy, 2006). Rel eased in 1985 by the studio Harmony prosperous USA and Tatsunoko Production an animated film studio based in Tokyo, Japan. This anime was adapted from trey separate Mecha Japanese animes namely Macross, Southern Cross, and Mospeada, reasons being that inorder to be broadcasted they had to have a minimum of 65 episode , thus Harmony Gold formed a co-licensing agreement with these three animes. The brainchild behind the story of Robotech was the writer Carl Macek. Macek edited almost all of the content and changed the dialogue to get the anime tailored to the story of Robotech. The names of some of the characters in Robotech were also altered to appeal to the American and international audience, including the name of the protagonist who in America he was named Rick hunting watch while in Japan he was called Hikaru Ichijo.The Basic storyline of the anime Robotech is based in the year 1999. A giant Alien Battle Cruiser crashes on earth which enables the entire human race to unite and work together in case a scenario where the aliens come to retrieve their ship should arise. Ten long time later, reconstruction of the battle spaceship now named the SDF-1 was still underway when the aliens named the Zentraedi well over earth to retrieve their ship. In an attempt to economize earth, the SDF-1 fires the Spacefold Drive an immature weapon which transports them into deep space, there the prolonged battle against the Zentraedi takes place. Rick Hunter is the main character of the anime who has a complex relationship with two main female characters, the ships officer Lisa Hayes and a singer Lynn Minmay. Events lead to many tragedies and loss of many main characters (Clements and McCarthy, 2006).15 years later Rick Hunter along with the SDF-3 carry on their voyage in space but the story changes with the Robotech masters saga as they set off in await of the world of Robotech masters. The Robotech masters on the other hand are well on their way towards earth, were they attack in search of their protoculture factory. The main character of the story is Dana Sterling who is the offspring of the first interspecific marriage. She along with her comrades try to save earth, but eventually a man on the opposing side having unclear motives destroys his own culture to save them (Clements and McCarthy, 2006).The story continues after this second Robotech war and before the third season. Aliens known as the Invid conquer earth but the inhabitants are too worn-out out from the battles to fight back. A generation later the main character named Scott Bernard with his reinforcements tries to liberate earth. All seems lost when eventually they manage to come into intercommunicate with Admiral Rick Hunter and with his space fleet, giving earth a ray of hope (Clements and McCarthy, 2006).Looking at Robotech and its penetration into America, Robotech as mention by Clements and McCarthy (2006) is an American and Japanese hybrid. Macross was brought to the U.S in 1 984 then later on released as Robotech in 1985, the name was also changed to Robotech in the same year. Robotech was made from three purely Japanese animes namely Macros, Southern Cross, and Mospeada. These animes were co-licensed by Harmony Gold and then were completely re-edited. The stories and dialogues were completely changed by Carl Macek. There were subtile name change for some characters but there were also some dramatic changes to some of the other names, for example Miss Hayase was changed to Lisa Hayes and the name of the protagonist was also changed from Hikaru Ichijo to Rick Hunter, mainly to appeal to the American and international markets. All these changes made by Harmony Gold show clear signs of cultural imperialism. They took pure Japanese anime, completely changed the story by an American writer. There were often arguments about how anime after penetrating America started to spread the Japanese culture and colonize America. One of the reasons is, anime having str ong Japanese cultural content. But looking at Robotech, how Harmony Gold took Japanese anime and made it their own, we can clearly see, that is not the case here (Lau, 2003). Another example can be of the famous Anime Mach Go Go Go, originally released in Japan and aired on American TV in 1967 as Speed Racer. It was considerably changed as the writer Peter Fernandez was given the job of toning down the Japanese version to an American version. They started off by changing the name to Speed Racer. They made a point to remove any type of violence or deaths of villains by making revolving stars around their heads to make it more humorous. They changed the names for the characters as well, changing the name of the protagonist Go Mifune to Speed (Clements and McCarthy, 2006). Ther